The Rogaland Anorthosite Province (RAP) in Norway is an important locality for better understanding Proterozoic massif-type anorthosite magmatism and associated Fe-Ti-P mineralisation as significant resources are found in the province. We integrate field observations with new zircon U-Pb geochronology and Hf isotope data from anorthosites, jotunites, and Fe-Ti-P deposits and occurrences to reassess the duration and geodynamic context of RAP magmatism. Zircon U-Pb ages range from ca. 950 to 910 Ma, which give direct evidence for protracted magmatic activity. The older investigated rocks of the RAP (944 Ma; Homsevatnet norite) display an intrusive relationship with undeformed anorthosites from the Egersund-Ogna massif. This is compatible with literature a Sm-Nd isochron age of ca. 1040 Ma for high-Al orthopyroxene megacrysts (HAOMs) from the anorthosites and provide insights about the meaning of the 930 Ma ages previously reported for zircon from these anorthosites. We report here that zircon grains extracted from massif-type anorthosites come from light-coloured rims around the HAOMs, and not from the HAOMs themselves. We interpret the 930 Ma age obtained for these zircons to represent portions of fractionated melt from anorthosite mushes and that this age represents only the final emplacement stage of anorthosites. The Fe-Ti-P deposits and occurrences from the RAP formed between ca. 950 and 910 Ma, but most of the occurrences crystallised around ca. 920 Ma, coeval with the Tellnes Fe-Ti deposit. Although Fe-Ti-P deposits in the RAP formed over a significant span of time, the most primitive occurrences (Fe-Ti) crystallised at 910 Ma. Hf isotopic compositions (epsilon Hf-i = -4.1 to + 5.5) reveal mixed mantle and crustal contributions, with progressively more juvenile signatures in younger intrusions. This is consistent with repeated mantle input during crustal reworking and supports the continuous input of juvenile mantle-derived material following the peak of the Sveconorwegian Orogeny. Results support that the RAP developed in a protracted (>40My) extensional setting associated with sustained mafic underplating and partial melting of lower crustal sources. This model reconciles the extended magmatic and metamorphic history of the province with the generation of massif-type anorthosites and their Fe-Ti-P mineralisation, providing broader insights into the formation of Proterozoic massif-type anorthosites.

The Storgangen deposit is located in the Rogaland anorthosite province, Norway, and forms an E-W-trending, 4-km-long, and up to 60-m-thick sheetlike intrusion. We have combined field and petrographic observations, whole-rock and mineral compositional variations, and Sr isotope composition through aprofile across the deposit. The predominant lithology is a medium-grained, magnetite-ilmenite-rich norite, which is massif at the base and becomes gradually more fine layered upward in the stratigraphy. Although ilmenite is the predominant oxide, there is a decrease in ilmenite proportions relative to magnetite upward in the stratigraphy, which leads to lower whole-rock Ti/Fe ratios in the sampled profile. Mineral compositional variations display a decrease of compatible elements in ilmenite and magnetite (e.g., Co, Cr, V) and in Mg# in orthopyroxene upward in the stratigraphy. These compositional trends support a progressive upward fractionation during the formation of the deposit. Based on the composition of oxides, we estimate that the orebody developed following only about 40% crystallization of the parental magma and preferential accumulation of Fe-Ti oxides at the bottom of the magmatic system due to gravitational segregation. The Storgangen deposit represents a staging chamber within the Rogaland anorthosite province that was part of a larger system. In situ Sr isotope ratios in plagioclase display a slight stratigraphic variation, with 87/86Srinitial varying from 0.70558 to 0.70602, which is greater than values from the host anorthosite in the vicinity of the deposit of 0.70540 to 0.70554. Thus, if contamination occurred, it may have taken place within a deeper staging chamber prior to emplacement. Alternatively, the Sr isotope signature may be inherited from variably contaminated parental primitive jotunites previously described in the Rogaland anorthosite province. Our results support that Fe-Ti-P deposits from the Rogaland anorthosite province likely define a compositional trend from high-to low-Ti/Fe systems, with the Storgangen deposit displaying relatively intermediate Ti/Fe ratios. Such a trend has been proposed for the Central Grenville province and may thus be a global feature of Fe-Ti-P deposits associated with massif-type anorthosites.

Summary With rising demand for sustainably mined and processed raw materials for decarbonization and for important industrial value chains, access to high-quality geological data has never been more important. National geological surveys provide geological data, understanding and models of the Earth's surface and subsurface, which are key to industrial exploration and development of future mining targets. Norway has a significant potential for increased mineral production, but locating, defining and constraining new mineral targets relies on comprehensive geological datasets, and an active mineral industry. In 2023, the Norwegian government published a new Mineral Strategy with an aim to increase sustainable production of critical raw materials through a stronger and better framework for mineral exploration and production. One of the ambitions is to increase the exploration activity by increasing the quality, amount and accessibility of geological data supplied through the Geological Survey of Norway. The demand for geological data is met by a set of actions, including bedrock mapping and surveying in areas considered prospective for critical raw materials, intensified airborne geophysical surveying, and soil geochemical campaigns. Better understanding of relevant mineral systems and upscaling of machine learning capacities are needed to improve prospectivity analyses.

Abstract The present special publication addresses opportunities and challenges in meeting the demand for essential and critical metals and minerals needed to supply the green and sustainable societies of the future. The notion of criticality in different countries is discussed and examples of ongoing national and cross-country research and mapping programmes are presented. In addition to the resource/reserve and technical–economic aspects, the social and environmental dimensions are also elaborated in some of the contributions, as holistic approaches to the exploration and exploitation of critical minerals and materials are needed to fulfill the green transition and goals for the Green Stone Age.

Abstract This study summarizes a compilation of studies and cartographical work on seabed mineral deposit types in pan-European seas developed under the GeoERA-MINDeSEA project. In total, 692 occurrences and 1194 individual mineral samples of volcanogenic massive sulfides and hydrothermal mineralization, ferromanganese crusts, phosphorites, marine placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, and their associated strategic and critical raw material (CRM) elements have been characterized. The GeoERA-MINDeSEA project has been built based on extensive studies carried out previously, which include geophysical surveys, sampling stations, underwater photography and remotely operated vehicle (ROV) surveys, and mineralogical, geochemical and isotopic studies. This study develops pan-European and national databases, and expands strategic and CRM knowledge through a compilation of mineral potential and metallogenic studies of CRM resources in European seas. For the first time, the GeoERA-MINDeSEA portal publishes harmonized marine mineral resource information, case studies and maps, and identifies potential areas for responsible resource exploration and extraction, strategic management, and marine spatial planning. This study also provides recommendations for future target areas, studies and standards to be used across Europe as part of this project.

Metals and minerals are essential for improving the quality of our lives, for new green energy technologies, and for a sustainable environment. This book addresses challenges in meeting the future demand for metals and minerals and presents results from ongoing research, surveying, exploration and exploitation of key minerals needed to supply the green and sustainable societies of the future.

Abstract Phosphate rocks and rare earth elements (REEs) as potential by-products are listed as Critical Raw Materials (CRMs) by the European Commission. In Europe, igneous-related phosphate deposits are associated with carbonatites, alkaline complexes, (ultra)mafic intrusions, iron oxide–apatite (IOA) and iron oxide–copper–gold (IOCG) mineralization, and granites or are formed in a metasomatic/hydrothermal context. To provide an overview of these deposits and assess their potential in CRMs, a database gathering in situ analyses of apatite was compiled. The data emphasize the significant REE enrichment of apatite related to alkaline complexes and carbonatites. They also guide the use of apatite in mineral exploration, based on distinct geochemical characteristics. Among the latter are the Sr, Mn, total REE and Y contents of apatite, the degree of light and middle REE enrichment, the Eu anomaly, and the tetrad effect. Additional bulk-rock analyses combined with estimates of reserves/resources of the deposits indicate a sub-economic potential of REEs to be exploited as by-products of phosphate mining at Kodal, Bjerkreim–Sokndal and in the northern Norrbotten district (Sweden). This study helps to identify new deposits/areas of interest for CRM exploration in Europe that could contribute to decreasing the supply risk for these raw materials through domestic production.

The oceans and seas cover more than 70% of the planet, representing a promising new frontier for mineral resources exploration, and an enormous challenge for science and technology. Communities are demanding actions to address global climate change, and the necessary high- and green-technologies required for a transition from a carbon-based to green-energy-based world. The global ocean is at the core of these issues. The seabed mineral resources host the largest reserves on Earth for some critical metals like cobalt, tellurium, manganese, and the rare earth elements, critical for Industry. But seabed geology and ecosystems are widely unexplored, and new geological and environmental studies are required to address the impacts of potential mining activities. In addition, a regulatory framework for minerals extraction and marine spatial planning are necessary for seabed mining sector development. The pan-European seas cover about 15 millions square kilometres in the Arctic and Atlantic oceans and the Mediterranean, Baltic, and Black seas, from shallow waters up to 6000 m water depth. Spanning a large diversity of environments and resource settings, including high and low temperature hydrothermal deposits, phosphorites, cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts, and manganese nodules, deep-sea deposits are particularly attractive for their polymetallic nature with high contents of rare and critical metals. Moreover, shallow-water resources, like marine placer deposits, represent another source for many critical metals and gems. The GeoERA-MINDeSEA[1] project is compiling data and genetic models for all these deposit types based on extensive studies, carried out previously, which include geophysical surveys, dredging stations, underwater photography and ROV surveys, and mineralogical, geochemical, and isotopic studies. The preliminary MINDeSEA results show the potential of the pan-European seas for critical metals, and the enormous gaps of information covering vast marine sectors. More than 600 mineral occurrences are reported in the MINDeSEA database. Seamounts and banks in the Macaronesia sector (Portugal and Spain) and the Arctic ridges (Norway, Denmark, Iceland) show a high potential for Fe-Mn crusts, rich in energy-critical elements like Co but also Te, REEs, and Mn. Fe-Mn crusts are accompanied by phosphorites on the seafloor of continental shelves and slopes along the western continental margins. Seafloor polymetallic sulphides and metalliferous sediments precipitating from hot hydrothermal solutions and plumes are forming today in the Azores Islands (Portugal), the Arctic (Norway, Denmark) and, the Mediterranean volcanic arcs (Italy and Greece). They are among the most important marine resources for Cu, Zn, Ag, and Au. In addition, hydrothermal deposits may contain economic grades of Co, Sn, Ba, In, Bi, Te, Ga, and Ge. Placer deposits of chemically resistant and durable minerals have been discovered on shallow-water settings (<50 m water depth on estuaries, deltas, beaches) linked to the weathering of onshore rocks and ore deposits from the Variscan Belt (UK, France, Portugal, Spain). Finally, shallow-water concretions and nodules from the Arctic, Baltic, and Black Sea represent potential targets for metals exploration and environmental studies. [1] This project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 731166

Phosphate rocks (sedimentary and igneous in origin) and their potential by-products (Rare Earth Elements and F) are listed as Critical Raw Materials (CRMs) by the European Commission, emphasizing the existing pressure to ensure the supply of these materials to the European Union. However, sedimentary phosphorite deposits are widespread throughout Europe, and several igneous-related phosphate deposits (associated with alkaline/carbonatite magmatism, anorthosites and monzonitic complexes) are located within the Fennoscandian Shield. This abstract aims to provide a short review of the most important phosphate deposits in Europe, with up-to-date data (abstracted from bibliography) relating the reserves/resources and grades of the deposits.

Security of supply of a number of raw materials is of concern for the European Union; foremost among these are the rare earth elements (REE), which are used in a range of modern technologies. A number of research projects, including the EURARE and ASTER projects, have been funded in Europe to investigate various steps along the REE supply chain. This paper addresses the initial part of that supply chain, namely the potential geological resources of the REE in Europe. Although the REE are not currently mined in Europe, potential resources are known to be widespread, and many are being explored. The most important European resources are associated with alkaline igneous rocks and carbonatites, although REE deposits are also known from a range of other settings. Within Europe, a number of REE metallogenetic belts can be identified on the basis of age, tectonic setting, lithological association and known REE enrichments. This paper reviews those metallogenetic belts and sets them in their geodynamic context. The most well-known of the REE belts are of Precambrian to Palaeozoic age and occur in Greenland and the Fennoscandian Shield. Of particular importance for their REE potential are the Gardar Province of SW Greenland, the Svecofennian Belt and subsequent Mesoproterozoic rifts in Sweden, and the carbonatites of the Central Iapetus Magmatic Province. However, several zones with significant potential for REE deposits are also identified in central, southern and eastern Europe, including examples in the Bohemian Massif, the Iberian Massif, and the Carpathians.

Apatite is a necessity for the production of phosphorus fertilizers and presents a potential raw material for the extraction of REE and Y. A wide spectrum of apatite deposits is found in Norway including sedimentary, igneous, and vein type deposits. The igneous deposits which appear to have the greatest potential for exploitation occur associated with alkaline complexes, massif-type anorthosite complexes and monzonitic complexes. One of the most promising is found in the monzonoritic Bjerkreim–Sokndal Layered Intrusion of the early Neoproterozoic Rogaland Anorthosite Province in southwest Norway. The intrusion hosts three cumulate units with high-grade ore zones. The most promising resource is confined to MCU IV which is 50–170 m thick and nearly 10 km long with average normative contents of 10.2% apatite, 12.4% ilmenite and 7.3% vanadium-rich magnetite. The late Neoproterozoic–Cambrian carbonatite-bearing alkaline complexes are generally of low grade to represent potential resources of apatite as the sole commodity. However, apatite may represent a byproduct of potential Nb and REE + Y mineralisation in the Fen Complex in southern Norway. The late Ordovician–Silurian Misværdal complex comprising multiple alkali clinopyroxenite intrusions in the Uppermost Allochthon of the Caledonides in northern Norway contains 1–1.5 km long and 100–200 m wide ultrapotassic clinopyroxenite dykes with average contents of 7–10 wt.% apatite and with intermediate levels of TREY (~ 0.5 wt.%). However, high levels of Th in the apatite make it less suitable as a raw material for fertilizer production. Apatite–Fe–Ti oxide ores being characteristic for the monzonitic complexes are especially well developed in the Permian Oslo Igneous Province where apatite-rich magnetite clinopyroxenite cumulates are found in the Larvik Plutonic Complex. The Kodal body has an inferred open-pit ore reserve calculated to 70 Mt with approximately 11.6 wt.% apatite, 3.0 wt.% ilmenite and 26.5 wt.% ilmenomagnetite. The apatite contains about 1 wt.% REE. Comparable types of deposits of Palaeoproterozoic age have recently been recognized in the alkali-calcic mangeritic to syenitic intrusions in the Lofoten–Vesterålen Mangerite Complex in northern Norway, whereas complexes with variable proportions of anorthosites (s.s.), jotunites and mangerites occurring in the Middle Allochthon of the Caledonides in South Norway also are known to host apatite-bearing Fe–Ti oxide deposits, some high in apatite. These complexes represent potential areas for green-field exploration. The TREY (TREE + Y) contents of the apatite in the igneous deposits are discussed and comprise very low levels in the Bjerkreim–Sokndal Layered Intrusion, intermediate levels in the carbonatites and pyroxenites of the alkaline complexes as well as nelsonite dykes and mangerite-associated deposits to high levels in the monzonite-associated deposits.

Terra NovaVolume 25, Issue 2 p. 169-171 Reply A non-collisional, accretionary Sveconorwegian orogen – Reply Trond Slagstad, Corresponding Author Trond Slagstad Geological Survey of Norway, Postboks 6315 Sluppen, Trondheim, 7491 NorwayCorrespondence: Dr. Trond Slagstad, Geological Survey of Norway, Leiv Eirikssons vei 39, Trondheim 7491, Norway. Tel.: +47 73 90 42 29; fax: +47 73 92 16 20; e-mail: trond.slagstad@ngu.noSearch for more papers by this authorNick M. W. Roberts, Nick M. W. Roberts Department of Geology, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK NERC Isotope Geosciences Laboratory, Keyworth, Nottingham, NG12 5GG, UKSearch for more papers by this authorMogens Marker, Mogens Marker Geological Survey of Norway, Postboks 6315 Sluppen, Trondheim, 7491 NorwaySearch for more papers by this authorTorkil S. Røhr, Torkil S. Røhr Geological Survey of Norway, Postboks 6315 Sluppen, Trondheim, 7491 NorwaySearch for more papers by this authorHenrik Schiellerup, Henrik Schiellerup Geological Survey of Norway, Postboks 6315 Sluppen, Trondheim, 7491 NorwaySearch for more papers by this author Trond Slagstad, Corresponding Author Trond Slagstad Geological Survey of Norway, Postboks 6315 Sluppen, Trondheim, 7491 NorwayCorrespondence: Dr. Trond Slagstad, Geological Survey of Norway, Leiv Eirikssons vei 39, Trondheim 7491, Norway. Tel.: +47 73 90 42 29; fax: +47 73 92 16 20; e-mail: trond.slagstad@ngu.noSearch for more papers by this authorNick M. W. Roberts, Nick M. W. Roberts Department of Geology, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK NERC Isotope Geosciences Laboratory, Keyworth, Nottingham, NG12 5GG, UKSearch for more papers by this authorMogens Marker, Mogens Marker Geological Survey of Norway, Postboks 6315 Sluppen, Trondheim, 7491 NorwaySearch for more papers by this authorTorkil S. Røhr, Torkil S. Røhr Geological Survey of Norway, Postboks 6315 Sluppen, Trondheim, 7491 NorwaySearch for more papers by this authorHenrik Schiellerup, Henrik Schiellerup Geological Survey of Norway, Postboks 6315 Sluppen, Trondheim, 7491 NorwaySearch for more papers by this author First published: 25 January 2013 https://doi.org/10.1111/ter.12028Citations: 9Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume25, Issue2April 2013Pages 169-171 RelatedInformation

Terra Nova, 25, 30–37, 2013AbstractThe late Mesoproterozoic Sveconorwegian orogen in southwest Baltica is traditionally interpreted as the eastward continuation of the Grenville orogen in Canada, resulting from collision with Amazonia, forming a central part in the assembly of the Rodinia supercontinent. We challenge this conventional view based on results from recent work in southwest Norway demonstrating voluminous subduction‐related magmatism in the period 1050–1020 Ma, followed by geographically restricted high‐T/medium‐P metamorphism between 1035 and 970 Ma, succeeded by ferroan magmatism over large parts of south Norway in the period 990–920 Ma. This magmatic and metamorphic evolution may be better understood as reflecting a long‐lived accretionary margin, undergoing periodic compression and extension, than continent–continent collision. This study has implications for Grenville–Sveconorwegian correlations, comparisons with modern continental margins, Rodinia reconstructions and how we recognize geodynamic settings in ancient orogens.

A fine-grained dike rock was collected during regional geologic mapping in the Xixano region, northeastern Mozambique. Observation in thin section and SEM and EMP analyses showed a fine-grained igneous texture dominated by optically unusual zoned amphibole and Fe(3+)-bearing low sanidine, with Sr-bearing fluor-apatite, rutile, Sr-bearing barite, a silica mineral, hematite and zircon. The mineralogy and major element data indicate an unusual high-silica lamproite. The amphibole is concentrically zoned and pleochroic from pale brown to pale greenish blue, with common abnormal blue and brown interference colours, indicative of high dispersion commonly associated with Fe(3+). Results of 29 EMP analyses, including two traverses across zoning, were formulated in different modes. The most satisfactory formulae were obtained assuming high Fe(3+)/(Fe(2+) + Fe(3+)) ratios and significant oxo component (O(2-) at the O(3) site substituting for (OH, F)). The most Ti-rich core composition approximates: K Na(2) (Mg(3)Fe(0.5)(2+)Fe(3+) (1)Ti(0.5)) Si(8) O(22) (F(1)O(1)), and can be classified as 1:1 solid solution between potassic-obertiite and potassic-fluoromagnesio-arfvedsonite. Zoning toward the rims increases the potassic-fluoro-magnesio-arfvedsonite component Lip to K Na(2), (Mg(3.5)Fe(1.5)(3+)) Si(8) O(22) (F(1)(OH)(0.5)O(0.5)).

The aim of this study was to improve the quality of laser ablation inductively coupled plasma‐mass spectrometry (LA‐ICP‐MS) determination of phosphorus in crystalline quartz. Over the last decade, the Geological Survey of Norway has routinely performed trace element determinations on quartz from both operating and potential quartz deposits by LA‐ICP‐MS. The determined phosphorus concentrations were, with but few exceptions, consistently within the range of 10 to 30 μg g−1, results that seemed to be both too high and too consistent. The multi‐material calibration curve obtained from a suite of reference materials (NIST SRM 610, 612, 614, 1830, BAM No. 1 amorphous SiO2 glass) did not define a precise regression line. Published phosphorus concentrations for the reference materials are poorly constrained and the observed dispersions along the multi‐material calibration curve suggest that some of the reference values may be inaccurate. Furthermore, the calibration curve did not pass through the origin of the [(cps 31P/cps 30Si) · cone. Si] vs. P concentration diagram; thus, in addition to the uncertainties of the literature values of phosphorus, it is difficult to define the calibration curve. Three reference materials (NIST SRM 614, 1830, synthetic quartz KORTH) were sent for phosphorus accelerator implantation, providing an independent and accurate (± 3%) approach for determining phosphorus concentrations in crystalline quartz. The intrinsic phosphorus concentrations of the three implanted samples plus those for NIST SRM 610 and 612 were determined by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), yielding new phosphorus values for NIST SRM 610, 612, 614 and 1830. Using these new values resulted in a better defined LA‐ICP‐MS calibration curve. However, the source of the ICP‐MS related background could not be defined, such that it must still be empirically corrected for.

This paper describes a technique for the preparation of a titanite (CaTiSiO5) glass calibration material for use in in situ microanalysis of major, minor, and trace elements in geological materials. The starting composition was a titanite matrix doped with minor and trace elements at ∼ 200 μg g‐1. The elements Sc, Y, REEs, Th and U were added in the form of nitrates in solution, and the elements V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zr, Nb, Hf and W were added as solid oxides. The synthetic titanite glass was produced by direct fusion by resistance heating in graphite electrodes at 1600‐1700 °C, and quenched in air. Backscattered electron images indicate good homogeneity, with no signs of separate phases or vesicles, and analysis of the major elements Ca, Ti and Si by electron microprobe showed relative standard deviations between 0.5 and 0.7%, based on six independent measurements. Deviations from nominal concentrations for Ca, Si and Ti were measured to ‐1.2, ‐3.3 and ‐0.8%, respectively. The homogeneity of the trace elements in the glass was assessed by LA‐ICP‐MS analyses, using NIST SRM 610, 612 and 616 as external calibrators, and Ca as the internal standard element. Determinations were made both with a quadrupole mass spectrometer and a sector field instrument, and both raster and spot modes of analysis were used. For the majority of doped elements, precision was better than 10%, and relative deviations from nominal values were, with few exceptions, between 5 and 10%.