The 1800Ma monzonitic to syenitic Raftsund intrusion is the largest intrusive body of the Lofoten-Vestera degrees len anorthosite-mangerite-charnockite-granite (AMCG) suite. It is composed of three units that can be differentiated based on their textures. This study focuses on the most voluminous, predominantly equigranular, unit consisting of a pigeonite-augite syenite and a fayalite-augite monzonite. The pigeonite-augite syenite is associated with centimeter-scale to hundred-meter scale occurrences of Fe-Ti-P-rich rocks that display sharp to gradational contacts with the surrounding syenite. Iron-Ti-P-rich rocks consist of augite, Fe-rich olivine +/- partly inverted pigeonite, apatite, ilmenite, titanomagnetite and sparse pyrrhotite, hornblende and biotite. Partly resorbed ternary feldspar crystals are common toward the contact with the syenite. Microtextures, such as symplectites, encountered at the contact between the syenite and the Fe-Ti-P-rich rocks indicate local disequilibrium between the two rock types. The Fe-Ti-P-rich rocks show large compositional variations but overall are enriched in Ca, Zn, Sc and rare earth elements in addition to Fe, Ti and P compared with the host syenite. Field evidence, whole-rock compositions and textural relationships all suggest that that silicate-liquid immiscibility was involved in the genesis of the Fe-Ti-P-rich rocks. These are interpreted to represent Fe-rich unmixed melts, whereas the syenite is inferred to originate from the crystallization of conjugate Si-rich immiscible melt. The existence of an Fe-rich melt is further supported by the high trace element content of augite from the Fe-Ti-P-rich rocks, showing that they grew from a melt enriched in elements such as Sc and Ti. The fayalite-augite monzonite also displays textural and chemical evidence of silicate liquid immiscibility resulting in unusually variable Zr contents (few hundred ppm to more than 3000 ppm) and the presence of abundant zircon and allanite restricted to millimeter- to centimeter-scale Fe-rich mineral clusters. The most Fe-rich and Si-poor rocks are interpreted to represent the larger proportion of the Fe-rich melt. Liquid immiscibility can be identified at various scales in the pigeonite-augite syenite, from millimeter-size clusters to large-scale bodies, up to hundreds of meters in size, indicating various degrees of separation and coalescence of the Fe-rich melt in the intrusion. The immiscible liquids in the fayalite-augite monzonite consist of an emulsion, with small millimeter- to centimeter-scale droplets of Fe-rich melt, whereas in the pigeonite-augite syenite, Fe-rich melt pockets were able to coalesce and form larger pods. The difference between the two units either results from earlier onset of immiscibility in the pigeonite-augite syenite or reflects a difference in the degree of polymerization of the melt at the time of unmixing. This study emphasizes the importance of silicate-liquid immiscibility in the evolution of intermediate to felsic alkalic ferroan systems and provides a series of arguments that can be used to identify the process in such systems.

Carbon and strontium isotope chemostratigraphy (178 delta C-13(carb), and delta O-18, and 81 Sr-87/Sr-86 analyses of carbonate components in whole-rock samples) was applied to constrain apparent depositional ages of the carbonate protoliths of amphibolite-grade, calcite marbles occurring in siliciclastic sedimentary sequences within the Upper and Uppermost Allochthons in the North-Central Norwegian Caledonides. The Sr-rich marbles hosting banded iron formations occur only in the Uppermost Allochthon. The marbles show, over a distance of 350 km, rather similar least-altered Sr-87/Sr-86 (0.70645-0.70665) and delta C-13 (+6 to +8%) values which are all consistent with a late Tonian (800-735 Ma) age. This sets up a maximum depositional age for the overlying iron formations and somewhat younger diamictites. The apparent maximum ages of the Scandinavian iron formations suggest their contemporaneous deposition with the oldest known Neoproterozoic iron formations reported from China (Shilu Formation) and Namibia (Chuos Formation). However, these maximum ages do not rule out the iron deposition and the diamictite accumulation in the early Cryogenian within a presumed Tonian-Cryogenian transition. Three other studied marble units in schist marble sequences, spatially unrelated to iron formations, show different Sr-87/Sr-86 and delta C-13 values matching younger apparent depositional ages of 685-600 Ma (the Uppermost Allochthon), and 550 or 425-410 Ma (the Upper Allochthon). The schist-marble-iron formations sequences in several areas contain extrusive meta-igneous rocks, and rare glacial diamictites. In places, all are intruded by intermediate and mafic sills. The iron formations were originally formed outside Baltica and were subsequently thrust upon the Baltoscandian margin during the Scandian orogeny. The provenance of these iron formations represents an enigma, hinting towards a passive continental margin of an unknown, apparently missing microcontinent. The accumulation of the Scandinavian iron formations within a passive continental margin or a large back-arc basin, in places glacially influenced, represents an exception to other reported clastic, sediment-dominated, Neoproterozoic (Cryogenian) iron formations which all were formed in volcanically active continental rift settings.

Phosphate rocks (sedimentary and igneous in origin) and their potential by-products (Rare Earth Elements and F) are listed as Critical Raw Materials (CRMs) by the European Commission, emphasizing the existing pressure to ensure the supply of these materials to the European Union. However, sedimentary phosphorite deposits are widespread throughout Europe, and several igneous-related phosphate deposits (associated with alkaline/carbonatite magmatism, anorthosites and monzonitic complexes) are located within the Fennoscandian Shield. This abstract aims to provide a short review of the most important phosphate deposits in Europe, with up-to-date data (abstracted from bibliography) relating the reserves/resources and grades of the deposits.

Trace element concentrations in quartz from 188 granitic pegmatites in the Froland and Evje-Iveland pegmatite fields, southern Norway, have been determined to establish exploration targets for high-purity quartz and to gain a better understanding of the genesis of pegmatites hosting these deposits. Both pegmatite fields were formed during the Sveconorwegian (Grenvillian) orogeny (1145-900 Ma) at the western margin of the Fennoscandian Shield.In situ raster analyses within single quartz crystals were undertaken by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS); spot size 75,mu m) to assess levels of lattice-bound impurities, rather than mineral and fluid inclusions that are relatively easily removed during high-purity quartz processing. Quartz in the Froland pegmatites has relatively pure and homogeneous compositions containing 46 24 mu gg(-1) Al, 8 +/- 3 mu gg(-1) Ti, 1.4 +/- 0.8 mu gg(-1) Ge, and 11 +/- 7 mu gg(-1) Li. The Ti-in-quartz geothermobarometer gives an average pegmatite crystallization temperature of 537 degrees +/- 39 degrees C. Temperature estimates are highest along the northwestern margin of the pegmatite field (>550 degrees C), whereas the most differentiated pegmatites occur toward the northeast. The area of greatest economic potential for high-purity quartz lies just north of the central part of the field where individual pegmatites contain >1 million metric tons (Mt) quartz with low average trace element contents of 67 +/- 11 mu gg(-1). From mineral-chemical criteria, and a range of other geologic factors, we propose that pegmatite melts in the Froland field were generated by fluid-present crustal melting at about 1060 Ma, in zones of localized high-strain deformation during progressive thrusting along the Porsgrunn-Kristiansand fault zone.Quartz in the Evje-Iveland pegmatites has more variable compositions with 69 +/- 57 mu gg(-1) Al, 19 +/- 11 mu gg(-1) Ti, 2.3 +/- 1.8 mu gg(-1) Ge, and 7 +/- 5 mu gg(-1) Li. From its Ti content, it crystallized at temperatures of 613 degrees +/- 70 degrees C. The regional spatial distribution of Ti-in-quartz temperatures appears irregular mainly due to the scattered distributions of chemical evolved pegmatites with "amazonite"-"cleavelandite" replacement zones, which show crystallization temperatures down to 442 degrees C. Quartz from the Evje-Iveland pegmatites is unlikely to be of current economic interest due to its moderate to high trace element contents, heterogeneous chemistry, and low volume. The Evje-Iveland pegmatites show no apparent genetic link to a granite intrusion; instead they probably formed as a result of partial melting at the depth of their amphibolite country rocks at around 910 Ma. This is related to a regional low-pressure/high-temperature metamorphic event at about 930 to 920 Ma.

Na-metasomatism in the form of albitisation is regionally extensive in the Precambrian crust of southern Scandinavia and is particularly widespread in the Bamble Sector, the Kongsberg-Modum Sector and the Norwegian part of the Mylonite Zone. Sites of albitisation outside these belts are associated with hydrothermal breccia pipes and fracture-bound alteration. The albitites are composed of near end-member sodic plagioclase (An0–5Ab94–99) with minor carbonate (calcite and dolomite), rutile, clinopyroxene (En30Fs21–23Wo47–49), amphibole (edenite-pargasite), quartz, titanite, tourmaline, epidote (Fe3+ = 0.20–0.85 a.p.f.u) and chlorite (Mg# = 0.81–0.89). The albitites have been studied in detail in the region around the town of Kragerø, and are described as albitisation along veins, as breccias, albitic felsites, massive carbonate-bearing albitites and megascale clinopyroxene-titanite-bearing albitite. The strong fluid control on their formation is illustrated by the veining and mineral replacement reactions, showing fluid transport by a H2O-CO2 fluid rich in Na, depleting Fe and Mg from the host rock, in accordance with calculated mass transfer. A study of the mineralogical replacement reactions in combination with a regional compilation has demonstrated the relationship between metasomatic processes and the formation of apatite, rutile and Fe deposits. The albitites occur spatially associated with other metasomatic rocks such as scapolitised metagabbros. We document that metasomatism is an important mineral- and rock-forming process in the continental crust, which in the Bamble Sector is a part of the tectonometamorphic evolution of the Sveconorwegian orogen.

Apatite is a necessity for the production of phosphorus fertilizers and presents a potential raw material for the extraction of REE and Y. A wide spectrum of apatite deposits is found in Norway including sedimentary, igneous, and vein type deposits. The igneous deposits which appear to have the greatest potential for exploitation occur associated with alkaline complexes, massif-type anorthosite complexes and monzonitic complexes. One of the most promising is found in the monzonoritic Bjerkreim–Sokndal Layered Intrusion of the early Neoproterozoic Rogaland Anorthosite Province in southwest Norway. The intrusion hosts three cumulate units with high-grade ore zones. The most promising resource is confined to MCU IV which is 50–170 m thick and nearly 10 km long with average normative contents of 10.2% apatite, 12.4% ilmenite and 7.3% vanadium-rich magnetite. The late Neoproterozoic–Cambrian carbonatite-bearing alkaline complexes are generally of low grade to represent potential resources of apatite as the sole commodity. However, apatite may represent a byproduct of potential Nb and REE + Y mineralisation in the Fen Complex in southern Norway. The late Ordovician–Silurian Misværdal complex comprising multiple alkali clinopyroxenite intrusions in the Uppermost Allochthon of the Caledonides in northern Norway contains 1–1.5 km long and 100–200 m wide ultrapotassic clinopyroxenite dykes with average contents of 7–10 wt.% apatite and with intermediate levels of TREY (~ 0.5 wt.%). However, high levels of Th in the apatite make it less suitable as a raw material for fertilizer production. Apatite–Fe–Ti oxide ores being characteristic for the monzonitic complexes are especially well developed in the Permian Oslo Igneous Province where apatite-rich magnetite clinopyroxenite cumulates are found in the Larvik Plutonic Complex. The Kodal body has an inferred open-pit ore reserve calculated to 70 Mt with approximately 11.6 wt.% apatite, 3.0 wt.% ilmenite and 26.5 wt.% ilmenomagnetite. The apatite contains about 1 wt.% REE. Comparable types of deposits of Palaeoproterozoic age have recently been recognized in the alkali-calcic mangeritic to syenitic intrusions in the Lofoten–Vesterålen Mangerite Complex in northern Norway, whereas complexes with variable proportions of anorthosites (s.s.), jotunites and mangerites occurring in the Middle Allochthon of the Caledonides in South Norway also are known to host apatite-bearing Fe–Ti oxide deposits, some high in apatite. These complexes represent potential areas for green-field exploration. The TREY (TREE + Y) contents of the apatite in the igneous deposits are discussed and comprise very low levels in the Bjerkreim–Sokndal Layered Intrusion, intermediate levels in the carbonatites and pyroxenites of the alkaline complexes as well as nelsonite dykes and mangerite-associated deposits to high levels in the monzonite-associated deposits.

Contents of Al, Ti, Li and Ge in quartz from 215 pegmatites in Froland, Evje-Iveland and Tysfjord in Norway, Borborema in Brazil, western Erzgebirge in Germany, and northern Portugal were determined by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Quartz of Lithium-Caesium-Tantalum (LCT)-type pegmatites has significantly higher Al and Li concentrations than quartz of Niobium-Yttrium-Fluorine (NYF)-type pegmatites. There are no distinct differences in the Ti and Ge contents between these types. Quartz from Froland and Tysfjord does not show chemical zoning within the individual pegmatites, whereas the content of Al, Li, and Ge in quartz increase and Ti decreases from the border zone to the core of the other pegmatites. The results imply that the chemistry of pegmatite quartz is predominantly controlled by the initial source composition of the pegmatite melts and, thus, by the geodynamic setting rather than by intermediate magmatic fractionation processes. In summary, NYF-type pegmatites provide quartz of better chemical quality and can, as in the case of the Tysfjord pegmatites, even reach high purity quality with less than 50 ppm total trace element contents.

Demand for high-purity quartz (HPQ) is strongly increasing worldwide owing to growing consumption and an increasing range of high-technology applications. This study includes: (1) a refined definition of HPQ (2) a discussion of the impurities controlling the chemical quality of HPQ products and (3) descriptions of selected HPQ deposits in Norway, both economic and potentially economic examples. The suggested definition of HPQ proposes concentration limits for the most important detrimental elements. The maximum content of each element should be: Al <30 μg g−1, Ti <10 μg g−1, Na <8 μg g−1, K <8 μg g−1, Li <5 μg g−1, Ca <5 μg g−1, Fe <3 μg g−1, P <2 μg g−1 and B <1 μg g−1 whereby the sum of all elements should not exceed 50 μg g−1.Impurities within quartz crystals (intracrystalline impurities) control the quality of HPQ products because they cannot be removed by conventional processing. These impurities include (i) lattice-bound trace elements, (ii) submicron inclusions <1 μm, and (iii) mineral and fluid micro inclusions (>1 μm). Present knowledge about intracrystalline impurities in natural quartz is described. The methods used here for identification and analysis of impurities are backscattered electron (BSE) and cathodoluminesence (SEM-CL) imaging and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). The HPQ deposits discussed include the Melkfjell quartzite, several kyanite quartzites, the Nedre Øyvollen pegmatite and the Kvalvik, Nesodden and Svanvik hydrothermal quartz veins. The discussion focuses on the content of lattice-bound trace elements and the micro-inclusion inventory because these are the major parameters which determine the quality of HPQ products. Finally, processes leading to HPQ formation are discussed.

In this study, we analysed the trace elements Li, Ge, Al and Ti in quartz of 155 granitic pegmatites from the Froland and Evje–Iveland pegmatite fields by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). These elements are the most common trace elements in quartz and their concentrations can be utilized to determine the degree of melt fractionation (Al, Li and Ge) and the crystallization temperature of pegmatites by applying the Ti-in-quartz geothermometer. Both pegmatite fields are part of the south Norwegian pegmatite province that was formed during the Sveconorwegian orogenesis at the western margin of the Fennoscandian shield, when the Bamble Complex was thrust over the Telemark Block along the Porsgrunn–Kristiansand Fault Zone (PKFZ). Quartz of the Froland pegmatites has relatively homogeneous compositions with 11.8 ± 6.7 ppm Li, 1.5 ± 0.8 ppm Ge, 44.7 ± 22.7 ppm Al and 7.7 ± 3.3 ppm Ti. The low Ti corresponds to crystallization temperatures of 535 ± 31°C. The temperatures are highest along the north-western margin of the pegmatite field (>550°C), close to the PKFZ. The most differentiated pegmatites occur along the north-eastern margin of the field, away from the PKFZ. The regional pattern of the quartz chemistry implies that the formation and emplacement of Froland pegmatite melts occurred in conjunction with the Sveconorwegian overthrusting. Quartz of the Evje–Iveland pegmatites has more variable compositions with 7.3 ± 4.5 ppm Li, 3.0 ±  2.9 ppm Ge, 81.7 ± 58 ppm Al and 21.4 ± 11.4 ppm Ti. The high Ti content indicates crystallization temperatures of 582 ± 48°C. The highest crystallization temperatures were detected along the northern margin and the central northern part of the field. Low crystallization temperatures were detected in the central eastern and south-western part of the Evje–Iveland field. The irregular regional zoning of the Evje–Iveland field contradicts the hypothesis that a parent granite intrusion is underlying the pegmatite field. The lack of coeval granite intrusions in both pegmatite fields suggests that the source of the pegmatite melts is to be found at deeper crustal levels and remains enigmatic at the current stage of knowledge.

The Ødegården verk apatite deposit is hosted in scapolitised metagabbro. Chlorapatite (Cl < 6.8 wt%) occurs dispersed in the metagabbro and as coarse crystals in apatite–phlogopite veins, crystallised and deposited during scapolitisation. Secondary pseudomorphic replacement related to albitisation transformed chlorapatite to porous hydroxy-fluor-apatite. Mass balance calculations show that scapolitisation of the Ødegården gabbro caused extensive depletion in Fe2O3, progressive depletion in CaO and Al2O3 and increase in MgO and Na2O. The apatite–phlogopite veins are markedly enriched in P2O5, K2O and MgO. Albitisation shows extensive depletion in Fe2O3, depletion in TiO2, MgO and CaO, while an increase in Na2O, Al2O3 and SiO2. Bamble sector is characteristically affected by metasomatism along a 100-km long and 25-km wide area, resulting in chemical and mineralogical transformation of continental crust. Metasomatic formation and replacement of apatite at Ødegården verk is in accordance with the regional distribution of Ap-deposits occurring related to scapolitised metagabbros in the area.

Element concentrations in quartz, feldspar and biotite of Sveconorwegian (1.13-0.9 Ga) granitic pegmatites in Froland, Norway, were analysed by LA-lCP-MS, EPMA and XRF, respectively, in order to determine chemical variations between different pegmatite types and within individual pegmatitic bodies. A refined classification of the syn-, late- and post-orogenic granitic pegmatites of Froland is presented basing on the pegmatite structure, bulk composition and mineral chemistry. Syn-orogenic pegmatites (1.13-1.06 Ga) are relative primitive with respect to granite differentiation. Late-orogenic pegmatites linked to the Herefoss pluton (0.93 Ga) have the most primitive composition and contain Fe phlogopite. Post-orogenic zinnwaldite pegmatites (< 0.93 Ga) are the most evolved. Pegmatitic quartz has an astonishingly consistent trace element signature between and within syn-orogenic pegmatites. Average concentrations are in the range of 6-10 mu gg(-1) for Li, 34-44 mu gg(-1) for Al, 4-8 mu gg(-1) for Ti, and 0.9-1.8 mu gg(-1) for Ge, Al, Li, Fe, Ge, and Ti in quartz of late- and post-orogenic and contact-metamorphosed syn-orogenic pegmatites are more variable. Micro-mylonitisation and contact metamorphism caused the lowering of Li and Al and the increase of Ti and Ge in pegmatitic quartz of some syn-orogenic granites. Several generations of secondary quartz replaced pegmatitic quartz at the micro scale (< 1 mm) during retrograde fluid-driven overprint. Secondary quartz is depleted in Al, Ti and Li compared to the host quartz. In contrast to quartz, the feldspar and biotite chemistry depends largely on the differentiation degree of the pegmatites and varies significantly within structurally-zoned pegmatite bodies. Feldspar and biotite chemistry reflects changes in melt composition within pegmatites, which includes a decrease of Mg and Sr and increase of Li, Rb, and Ba. The syn-orogenic pegmatites were formed during the crustal accretion on the western margin of Fennoscandia under constant PTX-conditions causing the homogeneous trace element signature of quartz.

This study presents an evaluation of Norwegian kyanite quartzites from Gullsteinberget, Knøsberget, Kjeksberget, Sormbrua, Tverrådalen, Juovvačorrú and Nasafjellet as potential deposits of high-purity quartz (HPQ) for use as raw material for special applications in high-technology industries. Fine-grained quartz, which forms 70 to 85 vol.% of these rocks, generally contains less than 50 μg g−1 (total sum) of the structurally incorporated trace elements B, Li, Al, Ge, Ti, Fe, Mn, K and P. The concentrations are in the same range as those found in HPQ products, which are being mined and produced in Norway and elsewhere. Quartz analyses were performed using laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Complimentary whole-rock analyses and cathodoluminescence studies of quartz were carried out to reveal processes, which have led to the low trace-element concentrations in quartz. This discovery, together with a better knowledge of the processes leading to the formation of HPQ in kyanite quartzites, could lead to the recognition of a new global type of HPQ resource applicable for industrial use. However, the processing technology necessary to separate HPQ from kyanite quartzite economically has not been developed so far.

The present study documents that the trace-element distribution in granitic quartz is highly sensitive to CAFC processes in granitic melts. Igneous quartz efficiently records both the origin and the evolution of the granitic pegmatites. Aluminium, P, Li, Ti, Ge and Na in that order of abundance, comprises >95% of the trace elements. Most samples feature >1 ppm of any of these elements. The remnant 5% includes K, Fe, Be, B, Ba and Sr whereas the other elements are present at concentrations lower than the detection limit. Potassium, Fe, Be and Ti are relatively compatible hence obtain the highest concentrations in early formed quartz. Phosphorous, Ge, Li and Al are relatively incompatible and generally obtain the highest concentrations in quartz that formed at lower temperatures from more evolved granitic melts. The Ge/Ti, the Ge/Be, the P/Ge and the P/Be ratios of quartz are strongly sensitive to the origin and evolution of the granitic melts and similarly the Rb/Sr and the Rb/K ratios of K-feldspars may be utilised in petrogenetic interpretations. However, the quartz trace element ratios are better at distinguishing similarities and differences in the origin and evolution of granitic melts. After evaluating the different trace element ratios, the Ge/Ti ratio appears to be most robust during subsolidus processes in the igneous systems, hence probably should be the preferred ratio for analysing and understanding petrogenetic processes in granitic igneous rocks.