This research investigated the transfer of potentially toxic metals through the agricultural food chain, from water and soil to maize, and subsequently to cow milk, at roadside (RS) and control site (CS) locations. Using atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS), the concentrations of Zn, Cu, Co, Mn, Mo, Fe, Pb and Cd were determined in samples of irrigation water, soil, maize and milk. Significant concentrations of Cd and Pb were detected in RS samples compared to CS samples, indicating anthropogenic inputs primarily from vehicle emissions. Milk metal concentrations at RS for Zn, Cu, Co, Mn, Mo, Fe, Pb, and Cd were 0.239, 0.001, 0.0011, 0.035, 0.001, 0.04, 0.0016, and 0.002 mg/L, respectively, while the corresponding CS concentrations were 0.288, 0.0005, 0.0008, 0.115, 0.001, 0.02, 0.0003, and 0.001 mg/L, respectively. The Contamination Factor (CF) and Bioconcentration Factor (BCF) indicated extensive transfer of trace metals in soils to maize. The health risk associated with the daily metal intakes, as assessed by the health risk dimensions (HRI), identified Cu and Cd as the most significant risks. The findings underscore the vulnerability of roadside agricultural systems to potentially toxic metal accumulation and emphasise the importance of continuous monitoring to safeguard food safety and public health.

The metabolism of food crops irrigated with untreated wastewater leads to heavy metal exposure in edible plant components, and even at extremely low doses, the consumption of toxic elements can pose serious health threats to humans. This problem is alarmingly striking in Pakistan, where wastewater irrigation for agriculture has become extensive in urban and peri -urban areas due to water scarcity. The present study integrates investigations on two commonly consumed root vegetables, carrot (Daucus carota L.) and turnip (Brassica rapa L.), cultivated in Sargodha and Sillanwali during 2023-2024 using sewage water, canal water, and tube well water. The study aimed to examine the levels of copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and chromium (Cr) in soil, water, crops, and human blood samples, and to evaluate the potential health risks associated with their consumption. Physico-chemical analysis of soil and water samples was carried out, and heavy metal contamination was assessed using (HQ). The uptake of metals from soil into the edible parts of carrot and turnip was also evaluated. Results showed that metal concentrations were highest at sewage water sites (SW1) and lowest at tube well sites (TW2). Comparative assessment revealed speciesspecific uptake patterns, with carrot showing relatively higher accumulation of Fe and Mn, while turnip exhibited comparatively higher Zn and Pb concentrations. However, all index values and HQ remained below 1, indicating that metal concentrations were within permissible limits. This study adds weight to existing evidence suggesting that open cultivation under untreated wastewater should be discouraged and highlights the urgent need for wastewater treatment and continuous monitoring to ensure food safety.

Aflatoxin contamination in maize (Zea mays L.), caused by Aspergillus flavus, significantly affects both nutritional quality and food safety. This study examined the relationship between aflatoxin levels and key maize nutritional components such as moisture, starch, protein, neutral detergent fiber (NDF), ash, and crude fat. The analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics, ANOVA, principal component analysis (PCA), hierarchical clustering, and correlation analysis. Aflatoxin levels showed considerable variability, ranging from 11.3 ppb to 496 ppb, with a mean of 223.86 ppb and a standard deviation of 173.2. Moisture content ranged from 12.43 % to 29.27 %, with an average of 16.27 %. Starch levels had a mean of 67.42 % (SD = 2.5), and protein averaged 14.24 % (SD = 2.15). Ash and crude fat had mean values of 2.01 % and 3.12 %, respectively. ANOVA showed that moisture (p = 0.01), starch (p = 0.033), protein (p = 0.007), ash (p = 0.041) and crude fat (p = 0.029) significantly affected aflatoxin levels but NDF (p = 0.089) had no significant impact on aflatoxin levels. PCA identified two principal components, which explained 54.1 % of the total variance. PC1 (37 %) was strongly associated with moisture (0.72), starch (-0.68), NDF (0.57), and aflatoxin levels (0.71). PC2 (17.1 %) was influenced by protein (0.65), crude fat (-0.52), and ash (0.49). Hierarchical clustering grouped maize samples into four clusters, with highaflatoxin samples showing higher moisture, lower starch, and increased NDF content. Aflatoxin levels were negatively correlated with starch (-0.58) and positively correlated with moisture (0.65) and NDF (0.52). These findings highlight the nutritional impacts of aflatoxin contamination, particularly on moisture retention, fiber increase, and carbohydrate reduction in maize, with statistical approaches offering deeper insights into how contamination alters grain properties.

This research examined the distribution and transfer of lead (Pb) through environmental and biological matrices in agricultural areas of Bhalwal, Punjab (Pakistan), with special attention to the effects of their source of irrigation. Water, soil, cereal crops (Triticum aestivum, Linum usitatissimum, Zea mays, Avena sativa, and Pennisetum glaucum), and human blood samples were taken from sites irrigated with municipal wastewater (MWW), canal water (CW) and groundwater (GW). Pb concentrations were measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry, and statistical analyses were used to explore spatial variability and correlation amongst the matrices. PB concentrations in irrigation water were from 0.0002 to 0.016 mg/L and remained below the WHO permissible limit (0.5 mg/L). Pb concentrations in soil (24.1-32.5 mg/kg) were above the WHO limit (10 mg/kg), indicating significant contamination of wastewater-irrigated sites. Pb concentrations in cereal crops varied from 0.18 to 0.42 mg/kg and exhibited crop-specific and site-specific differences, with L. usitatissimum and P. glaucum accumulating higher Pb concentrations. Pb concentrations in human blood samples varied from 0.0003 to 0.006 mg/L, with the highest concentrations occurring at MWW sites. Pollution Load Index (PLI) values (2.97-3.99) were above unity, suggesting contamination, while Health Risk Index (HRI) values (0.48-0.62) were below 1.0, indicating no direct health risk.

This study aimed to evaluate the accumulation of nickel (Ni) and cobalt (Co) and their associated human health risks in two guava varieties (Gola and Surahi) grown under contrasting irrigation systems. For the analysis of Ni and Co, samples of water, soil, and fruits were collected from peri-urban areas, Chak 81 S.B (Site I) and 88 S.B (Site II) of Sargodha, Pakistan, which were irrigated with tube well water and wastewater, respectively. The mean values of Ni and Co were found in the range of 0.043 to 0.217 and 0.017 to 0.040 mg/L in water, 1.070 to 1.254 and 1.032 to 1.248 mg/kg in soil, and 0.281 to 0.582 and 0.202 to 0.252 mg/kg in fruit samples, respectively. The health risk assessment revealed that only Ni exceeded the safety threshold (maximum HRI = 1.113), indicating a potential health concern associated with the consumption of wastewater-irrigated guava, whereas all Co HRI values remained below 1 and did not indicate a significant health risk. These findings suggest that prolonged use of wastewater for irrigation should be carefully monitored and managed to minimize potential health risks associated with nickel accumulation in the food chain.

This study investigates the occurrence and transfer of potentially toxic metals in roadside and agricultural soils, Pennisetum glaucum fodder, and cow milk across areas with varying traffic density in Kallar Kahar, Pakistan. Samples were digested using a wet acid digestion method and analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) under strict quality control protocols. The analyzed milk samples exhibited a broad range of metal concentrations, with Zn ranging from 1.99 to 3.16 mg/L, Fe from 0.16 to 0.32 mg/L, Mn from 0.02 to 0.28 mg/L, Cu from 0.001 to 0.008 mg/L, Pb from 0.001 to 0.009 mg/L, Cd from 0.0001 to 0.009 mg/L, Co from 0.0002 to 0.008 mg/L, and Mo from 0.001 to 0.004 mg/L. Contamination Factor (CF), Bioconcentration Factor (BCF), Daily Intake of Metal (DIM), and Health Risk Index (HRI) computations suggested that all values are below 1, indicating low levels of contamination and no immediate health risk under the studied conditions. However, values approaching threshold limits (e.g., Cd in milk and Mo in soil) suggest the need for cautious interpretation and long-term monitoring. Comparative analysis with international guidelines confirmed that metal levels in the study area are within safe limits. These findings highlight the suitability of the local environment for fodder production and dairy farming while emphasizing the importance of continuous monitoring to mitigate potential long-term risks.

This study evaluated Molybdenum (Mo) accumulation and potential health risks associated with four rice varieties (Super Kernel, Kainat, Basmati, and Irri 6) irrigated with tube well water (T1) and mixed wastewater (T2). Rice and irrigation water samples were analyzed for Mo concentrations by flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). Mo concentrations varied by variety and irrigation water source, increasing from 0.014 mg/kg under T1 to 0.0274 mg/kg under T2, while Kainat accumulated the lowest levels under both treatments. Molybdenum concentrations in rice grains remained low, ranging from 0.00073 to 0.012 mg/kg. Enrichment and transfer indices were consistently low, reflecting weak Mo enrichment and mobility within the soil-plant system. Serum Mo concentrations varied among age groups, ranging from 0.00162 to 0.01433 mg/L, with relatively higher values observed under mixed-water irrigation. The health risk assessment showed that the Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) for all age groups was below 1, with a maximum THQ of 0.00572, indicating no appreciable non-carcinogenic health risk associated with rice consumption. Although mixed-water irrigation resulted in higher Mo concentrations and THQ values, these differences represent increased estimated exposure rather than confirmed adverse health effects, supporting routine monitoring rather than implying chronic exposure risk.

Potentially toxic metal contamination in agroecosystems poses a growing risk to environmental and food safety, particularly in arid regions where water scarcity enhances metal accumulation and increases reliance on groundwater irrigation. However, integrated assessments across environmental and biological matrices remain limited. This study quantified chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and nickel (Ni) in irrigation water, soil, forage, milk, and hair samples collected from rural and urban buffalo-rearing systems in Bhalwal, Punjab, Pakistan. Samples were subjected to acid digestion followed by quantification using Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS). Measured concentrations in irrigation water ranged from 0.0025 to 0.047 mg/L (Cr), 1.45 to 6.70 mg/L (Fe), 0.018 to 0.097 mg/L (Mn), and 0.015 to 2.30 mg/L (Ni). While Cr and Mn remained below WHO and USEPA guideline limits (0.05–0.1 mg/L for Cr; 0.05–0.4 mg/L for Mn), Fe (limit: 0.3 mg/L) and Ni (limit: 0.07–0.1 mg/L) exceeded permissible levels at several sites, particularly in urban areas. Similar trends were observed in soil and forage, with elevated concentrations of Fe (up to 75.50 mg/kg) and Ni (up to 15.60 mg/kg). In biological matrices, milk concentrations ranged from 0.910 to 3.376 mg/L (Cr), 0.363 to 1.473 mg/L (Fe), 0.683 to 1.166 mg/L (Mn), and 0.223 to 0.915 mg/L (Ni), with several values exceeding typical background levels reported in the literature. Hair samples showed comparatively higher metal accumulation, reflecting longer-term exposure. Although concentration gradients from environmental to biological samples were observed, these findings indicate potential accumulation patterns rather than definitive trophic transfer pathways.

Agroecosystems receive significant inputs of potentially toxic metals from traffic activities, yet current understanding of their movement through the water-fodder-livestock pathway is limited. The focus of this study was the identification, characterization, and calculation of risk for Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, Co, and Mo found in irrigation water, Pennisetum glaucum, and cow milk from both roadside and non-roadside agricultural areas. Quantitative analysis of these metals was performed on samples collected via acid digestion of each respective environment and subsequent determination of concentrations via atomic absorption spectrophotometry, with rigorous quality control procedures in place. The results of the analysis consistently showed higher metal concentrations in roadside fodder relative to their respective controls, but metals in wastewater are still below international safety standards. In milk, metal concentrations remained low, with Pb (0.0003–0.0016 mg/L), Cd (0.001–0.0024 mg/L), Zn (0.24–0.29 mg/L), Fe (0.0267–0.0406 mg/L), and Cu (0.0005–0.001 mg/L) all below established safety limits despite significant site-related differences. Copper emerged as the most critical element, with health risk index (HRI) values exceeding unity at specific roadside locations, indicating a localized health concern. Thus, despite generally low metal transfer to milk, the elevated Cu risk identified in roadside fodders underscores the need for targeted risk assessment to safeguard livestock-derived food products.

Heavy metals are among the most persistent and harmful environmental pollutants due to their indegradability, bioaccumulation capabilities, and biogrowth in food chains. This study evaluates the transfer and accumulation of heavy metals across the soil-fodder-milk continuum in semi-urban agricultural systems. This study also aims to provide a comprehensive risk assessment framework for addressing roadside ecological risks, which are common in developing countries. The samples were digested using a microwave-assisted acid digestion and analysed using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS). All metals in the milk samples were below the accepted values of Zn (1.99-3.16 mg/L), Fe (0.16-0.32 mg/L), Mn (0.01-0.30 mg/L), Cu (0.0001-0.0087 mg/L), Pb (0.001-0.0098 mg/L), Cd (0.0006-0.0092 mg/L), Co (0.0002-0.0080 mg/L), and Mo (0.0001-0.0040 mg/L). Soil quality assessment using the Pollution Load Index (PLI) confirmed minimal contamination (PLI<1), though elevated Zn and Pb near roadways indicated traffic-related contributions. Fodder crops exhibited limited metal uptake, with Bioconcentration Factors (BCF) below 1 for all elements. Daily Intake of Metals (DIM) and Health Risk Index (HRI) values for grazing cattle were within safe thresholds (HRI<1). Spatial analysis revealed significant site-specific variations (p < 0.001), particularly near roadsides. The findings offer important reference value for ensuring regional agricultural product quality and safety.

Arsenic (As) accumulation is a critical environmental concern in many developing countries due to its high toxicity and wide distribution. In the current investigation, As contents were estimated in soil, forage and cow’s milk samples collected from rain-fed and groundwater-irrigated areas of Chakwal, Pakistan. The samples were subjected to wet digestion and examined for As contents using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. As concentrations ranged from 2.28 to 10.57 mg kg−1 in soil, 0.663 to 2.40 mg kg−1 in forages, and 0.012 to 0.017 mg kg−1 in milk. Among the forages Chenopodium album demonstrated the highest As contents at the groundwater-irrigated site, while Tribulus terresteris had the lowest As contents at the rain-fed site. All samples exhibited As levels below the permissible limits set by WHO. This study also found a significant positive correlation between As levels in soil and forages at both sites, while the correlation between forages and milk was negative and non-significant. All estimated pollution indices were below the threshold limit, indicating insignificant As contamination across study sites. However, Chenopodium album exhibited significantly higher pollution indices than other forage species (p < 0.05), signaling its enhanced bioconcentration potential.

Background: Toxic metal accumulation in food crops poses significant public health risks. In particular, chromium (Cr) and cadmium (Cd) contamination in rice crops can lead to human exposure through dietary intake, emphasizing the need for ongoing monitoring and assessment. Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the levels of chromium and cadmium in four rice varieties-Super Kernel, Kainat, Basmati, and Irri 6-cultivated in Sargodha, Pakistan, and to assess potential health risks among different age groups in the local population. Main Outcome: The main outcome of the study measures the Cr and Cd concentrations in soil, rice, and serum samples were measured, revealing a predominance of Cd contamination relative to Cr. Super Kernel and Kainat rice varieties exhibited the highest uptake of Cd and Cr, respectively. Contamination factors indicated moderate enrichment of Cd in the study area, with higher Cd contamination compared to Cr. Result: There were five distinct age groups among the humans that lived there. Group I: ages 5 to 15; Group II: ages 16 to 25; Group III: ages 26 to 35; Group IV: ages 36 to 45; and Group V: ages 46 to 55. Chromium concentration was observed as 9.07±0.002 mg/kg in soil samples, 3.89±0.001 mg/kg in rice samples and 0.03± 0.001mg/L in serum samples. Cadmium concentration was observed as 1.02±0.00 mg/kg in soil samples, 0.4±0.00 mg/kg in rice samples and 0.0028±0.00 mg/l in serum samples. Super kernel and Kainat rice showed the highest Cd and Cr uptake in their tissues respectively. Conclusion: Contamination factor results (CF>1) showed higher Cd contamination in the study area as compared to Cr metal. Cd metal also showed moderate level of enrichment in study area. As all THQ values were less than 1 in every age group, so there was no expected carcinogenic hazard to local consumers. Although current risk assessments suggest minimal carcinogenic hazard, elevated Cd levels warrant government intervention to implement strategies aimed at reducing cadmium contamination in rice grains, thereby safeguarding future public health.

Cadmium toxicity is a significant environmental issue affecting crop growth and productivity globally. Maize, a rich source of nutrition, is an excellent model plant to study physiological changes responsible for reduced productivity under stressful conditions. This study assessed the effect of Cd concentrations on maize seedlings before and after exogenous application of proline and trehalose in 25 mM, 50 mM, and 75 mM concentrations. Trehalose has emerged as an important reducing sugar that can reduce the adverse impacts of Cd. Exogenous proline increased proline content and alleviated Cd-induced seedling growth inhibition. It also increased antioxidant enzyme activities and reduced reactive oxygen species accumulation. Compared with other concentrations, 75 mM of exogenous proline and trehalose was the most effective at mitigating Cd toxicity in maize. The results depicted that proline showed the better plant growth in Cd stressed maize plants due to better yield and cob level, lesser degradation of chlorophylls, and accumulation of essential mineral contents. Hence, the research concluded that exogenous application of proline and trehalose could be beneficial in reducing Cd toxicity in maize crop.

The freshwater shortage and increased domestic effluents have led the farmers to utilize untreated sewage water for irrigation, owing to population growth and urbanization in Pakistan. Though sewage water contains essential plant nutrients, it is also a foremost source of metal contamination within the food chain. This study aimed to compare heavy metals (Cd, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni, and Cr) contamination in radish (Raphanus sativus L.) grown in soils irrigated with sewage water, tube well water, and canal water in Sillanwali and Sargodha of Punjab, Pakistan. The areas were evaluated for heavy metal contamination using soil quality indices, including contamination factor (CF), enrichment factor (EF), bioconcentration factor (BCF), estimated daily intake (EDI), and hazard quotient (HQ), which were duly computed for the collected samples. The physicochemical properties of the soil and water samples were also analyzed. The results indicated that the sewage-irrigated areas are more vulnerable to risk concerning metal contamination than those located along canals. Metal concentrations in sewage-irrigated areas were significantly higher in the edible parts of the vegetables; sewage water contained and transferred more metals than canal water; hence, it poses increased health and ecological risks. Peak concentrations were observed at site SW1 (sewage water, site 1) and were the lowest at site TW2 (tube well water irrigation, site 2). Since all metal index values fell below 1, it shows that all metal concentrations were within permissible limits.

The use of improperly treated wastewater for irrigation results in the accumulation of potentially toxic metals in soil and crops, endangering ecosystems and human health. This study evaluated trace element levels in Super Kernel Basmati rice from five paddy areas in Pakistan, focusing on health and eco-environmental risks. Bioaccumulation of trace metals in grains, shoots, and roots irrigated with wastewater was assessed. According to the laboratory analysis, there is significant pollution with cadmium (3.798 mg kg(-)(1)) at Site-III, cobalt (2.49 mg kg(-)(1)) at Site-II. The Zinc (1.242 mg kg(-)(1)), copper (0.603 mg kg(-)(1)) Iron (8.56 mg kg(-)(1)) and manganese (12.56 mg kg(-)(1)) remained well below their respective safety thresholds. varied across sites but stayed within safe limits. Nickel reached its peak concentration at Site-I (9.68 mg kg(-)(1)), remaining within acceptable levels. The mean metal concentrations (mg kg(-)(1)) in rice grains followed the order: Mn > Ni > Fe > Cd > Co > Zn > Cu. Pollution load index (PLI) values for all metals were below 1.00 except cadmium, indicating contamination. Bioaccumulation factors (BAF) were below 1 at all sites. Daily intake (EDI) values for Cu, Fe, Ni, and Zn were within safe limits, while cadmium exceeded thresholds. Health risk indices for all metals were below 1.00 except zinc. Spatial variations in metal enrichment highlighted site-specific pollution patterns, emphasizing the need for environmental monitoring and remediation. Results stress the impact of trace metals on plant and environmental health, particularly in areas with higher bioaccumulation. These findings offer critical insights for risk assessment and developing strategies to mitigate PTE risks in basmati rice, ensuring both environmental sustainability and human safety.

This study investigated the potential risks of cadmium (Cd) toxicity in buffaloes grazing on forages that were cultivated in soils irrigated by various sources of wastewater. The absorption of trace metals (TM) by plants and their subsequent entry into the food chain pose a significant danger to grazing animals through the accumulation of contaminated fodder. The mean concentration of Cd in the water ranged from 0.18-1.78 mg/L, in the soil 0.63 to 1.87 mg/kg, in the forage 0.20 to 1.32 mg/kg, and in the blood 0.26 to 1.98 mg/L. Among all three sites, canal water (CW Site I), groundwater (GW Site II), and sewage water (SW Site III), the concentration factor (CF) values were below the threshold of 1 (CF < 1), indicating the nominal environmental concern regarding Cd contents in the soil-plant interface. In addition, a prominent variation was noticed in the transfer factor (TF) of Cd across different sites, with the highest TF observed in Avena sativa L. at SW Site III (0.8) and the lowest in Pennisetum glaucum L. at CW Site I (0.27). Furthermore, the hazard quotient (HQ) exhibited a substantial fluctuation, ranging from 0.39 to 2.6, reflecting varying levels of potential health risks associated with Cd exposure. The outcomes of the current investigation suggested that the prominent increase in Cd levels was recorded at sampling site SW Site III due to continuous wastewater irrigation. Prolonged exposure and increased Cd absorption in buffaloes grazing at these sites could have harmful long-term effects on their health. The correlation analysis between Cd concentrations in water, soil, forage, and blood showed a positive but non-significant relationship for water-soil, soil-forage, and forage-blood interactions. This highlights the need for further research to assess the long-term implications of wastewater irrigation on heavy metal accumulation in livestock.

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) production faces major yield loss due to biotic stresses. Developing genetically resistant cultivars presents a sustainable alternative to chemical controls, which are often costly and ineffective. This study utilized 10 molecular markers, including SSR, SCAR, and CAPS markers, to assess resistance to six major diseases, including Fusarium wilt, late blight, bacterial wilt, root-knot nematode, Tomato Mosaic Virus (ToMV), and Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus (TYLCV), across 964 tomato accessions comprising both wild germplasm (371) and cultivars (593). Wild germplasm, especially S. peruvianum, showed the highest frequencies of resistance loci. Markers linked to TYLCV and Fusarium wilt were particularly prevalent, with frequencies of 31.8

Freshwater resources are continuously depleting over time due to the combination of various climatic, political and anthropogenic factors. The freshwater shortage has compelled farmers to use sewage water as an irrigation source for vegetable cultivation. However, urban sewage water contains a sufficient amount of heavy metals which can easily damage soil, crops and affect human health. The present study compared the concentrations of toxic metals including copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), cadmium (Cd) lead, (Pb) and cobalt (Co) in radish and soil irrigated with sewage water (SW) versus canal water (CW). The results showed that the SW contains a significant number of heavy metals e.g., Cu (1.735 mg/kg), Fe (3.775 mg/kg), Zn (1.885 mg/kg), Mn (0.375 mg/kg), Cd (0.044 mg/kg), Co (0.05 mg/kg), Pb (0.062 mg/kg), and Mo (0.07 mg/kg), leading to increase the accumulation in the radish and soil by increasing their permissible limits. The irrigation water sources also have the potential to affect soil physicochemical properties and proximate composition of the radish. The sewage water irrigation notably increased salinity, nutrients, and soil organic matter, however it also increased the contamination risks. The Pollution Load Index (PLI) and Bio-concentration Factor (BCF) metrics revealed that sewage water has substantial adverse health impacts due to high metal contamination. There is an urgent need to adopt the innovative management strategies to improve the irrigation water sources to prevent soil health threats from metal pollution.