Prosopis juliflora (Swarts) DC has been valued as a firewood since its introduction to the Indian subcontinent in 1857. Productivity of fuel wood plantations ranged about 5–15 t/ha/year. The usefulness of its pods as fodder and food crops is not understood in Indian sub-continent. Uncontrolled invasion of the species that is the main concern of farming communities, scientists, policy planners and politicians could be checked if pods and seeds would be processed for value-added products that destroy the viability of the seeds and eliminates new establishment. With the participation of rural communities, R&D organizations, and extension agencies, 50 t pods were purchased from farmers by industries, processed into feedblocks and human food products and sold on the market. Small branches were purchased from farmers, chipped and sold to a biomass power plant. Household income of participating village communities increased by 68% that developed a sense that P. juliflora which they considered disaster is actually a gift of nature.

In Ladakh, a cold arid region, subsistence agriculture has been in practice and is associated with livestock rearing in very small-scale stone-built terrace farming. Due to poor resources, public distribution systems, import/mutual exchange of plant materials and higher labour cost, high-altitude default organic farming has become a complex activity where weeds have become a recurrent problem. Moreover, they have become an integral part of fodder resources under small-scale stone-built terraced farming in barren ecosystems for enriching straw with supplementary weedy stuff. As a result, cropped areas suffer severe weed pressure as it requires 4-5 weedings under high-altitude solar radiation. An intensive survey revealed that the majority of weeds constituted of Amaranthaceae, Asteraceae, Poaceae and Fabaceae families, and they varied attitudinally. In this region, weeds are the major associated plant species, limiting the performance of crops in terms of seed quality and yields significantly. Hence, weed menace is overlooked in crops that impact the invasive weedy species to move upward to high altitudes under climate change. Conversely, people across this region have identified many of the weedy species for their day-to-day consumption as green leafy vegetables and for medicinal uses under the harsh climate of the cold arid region. This article describes the weedy species identified in crops and their utilization under low-land holding subsistence agriculture.

Rural folk in arid western Rajasthan, the principal hot arid region of the country have been practising arable cropping in association with these scattered trees on crop fields since time immemorial. As arid western Rajasthan accounts for 61% of hot arid region of the country, therefore it is considered principal hot arid region. Agroforestry systems can be useful in maintaining production during drier years, a common phenomenon in arid regions of India. In drought prone environment of arid western Rajasthan, as a risk aversion and cooping strategy, the traditional agroforestry systems avoid long term vulnerability as trees act as an insurance against drought, insect-pests outbreaks and other threats, instead of a yield-maximising strategy aiming at short term monetary benefits. The woody component in agroforestry systems helps in reducing soil erosion which is the most harmful abiotic stress in arid region. Agroforestry contributes to livelihood improvement in arid regions of India, where people have a long history of accumulated local knowledge.

Prosopis juliflora (Swartz) DC., an invasive alien plant species, is known as a threat to biodiversity and ecosystem services world over. It has heavily invaded community grazing lands (CGLs) in the Indian Thar Desert. The present study reports effects of four canopy sizes, (i.e. small, medium, large and no-canopy/open plot), of P. julflora shrub on native vegetation and soil fertility (0–20 cm depth) in the CGLs distributed in Jodhpur, Pali, and Sirohi districts in the Desert. In addition, economic profitability of P. juliflora based three enterprises, (i.e. charcoal making, pod-flour making, and sheep rearing in the grasslands if developed in the CGLs), was evaluated to find out invasion control measures of the shrub through utilization. Soil organic carbon (SOC), total N, available P and K, and mineral N (NO3−–N, NH4+–N) and soil-moisture contents were higher under the shrub canopy than in open plot; and they were the highest under the large and lowest under the small canopy sizes. But, light intensity (Lux) declined under the canopy. The decline, however, was the highest under the large and lowest under the small canopy sizes. Composition of native plant species changed and their richness and diversity declined under the canopy, but was higher under the larger canopy size. Economic analyses revealed that investment was the highest (5476US$ ha−1) in the charcoal and lowest (486US$ ha−1) in pod-flour enterprise, but gross profit and net present value (NPV) were the highest (10740US$ ha−1 and 5264US$ ha−1, respectively) in the charcoal and lowest (895US$ ha−1 and 409US$ ha−1, respectively) in pod-flour enterprise. Other economic parameters, like the annuity and internal rate of return (IRR), were also the highest in the charcoal and lowest in pod-flour enterprise suggesting that the charcoal enterprise is economically the most profitable enterprise; and it may control the invasion of the P. juliflora in the Desert.

Small scale agriculture is still the predominant characteristic of the Ladakh. It still has a great role in the economy. The region produces barley, wheat, vegetables and also involved in rearing livestock. The farming systems are unique and adapted to the harsh environmental conditions of Ladakh. Currently, the largest commercial agricultural produce is vegetable, which is sold in large quantity to defence establishments and as well as in the local market. It was recorded that production remains mainly in the hands of small land owners. In all the surveyed villages, majority of area (75%) is under vegetable crops as compared to cereals such as wheat and barley (25%). Efforts/ energy (unit in each case= value X 105 k cal/ha/year) being put to grow vegetables are significantly higher than the total output and the situation is just reverse in case of cereals. Survey revealed the need of small scale interventions including scientific weed management. From total energy point of view, staple crop production was found to be energy efficient. Even though subsistence-oriented production remains the economic mainstay, livelihood strategies have diversified in the light of growing geostrategic relevance and significant socio-economic changes.

A study was conducted to investigate the effect of multipurpose tree species namely Prosopis cineraria, Acacia senegal and Tecomella undulata on the physical and chemical properties of soils representing Typic Haplocambids. The plantations of Prosopis cineraria and Acacia senegal were even aged, while that of Tecomella undulata was relatively young. The soils had an overall low status of SOC ( K>Mg>P>Fe>Mn>Zn>Cu undertree species and variationinthe amount of nutrient returned to the soils among the different tree species and field without plantation explained by the quantity of litter production and its chemical composition. The present study also indicated that these available nutrients had significant and positive correlation with organic carbon content across the land uses.

Submit Manuscript | http://medcraveonline.com used mainly for rural subsistence or local markets. They often go unrecorded in official statistics, which focus on nationally traded goods [3]. Second, because modern Government administration have divided these products among forestry, agriculture and horticulture and therefore, statistics do not recognize even nationally and internationally NTTP. Finally, modern forestry has favoured timber and large enterprises, and generally NTTPs as incidental. However, the fact is that for most of the world’s rural households NTTPs provides essential food and nutrition, fodder, fuel, medicine, thatch and construction materials, mulch and nonfarm income [4]. Poor households, in particular, depend on these products for their livelihood, especially in developing and under developed countries

Acacia senegal (L.) Willdenow or Acacia seyal (Fam. Leguminosae) is native to arid and semi-arid region of sub-Saharan Africa. In Indian sub-continent, species is exotic but has been well naturalized. Acacia senegal is an important tree species, the source of gum Arabic is found in the desert state of Rajasthan, especially in arid western Rajasthan. It’s habitats in arid western Rajasthan included rocky hills, sandy plains, sandy hummock and sand dunes. It is commonly an under canopy tree which generally attains a height of 4.5 to 8.0 m. After repeated trials and error, ICAR-CAZRI, Jodhpur standardized the dose of Ethephon treatment of A. senegal trees for enhanced recovery of gum Arabic. The present study deals with CAZRI developed gum Arabic production technology coupled with gum Arabic production from different land forms in arid zone. From the data obtained through various experimentations A. senegal produces maximum average of (0.408g/ tree) gum Arabic on sand dunes followed by inter dunal area (0.316g/ tree). Minimum average of gum Arabic yield recorded in rocky gravelly land forms (0.12 g/tree). Acacia senegal can be source of additional income for the millions of people in arid and semi-arid regions of India, if it is explored scientifically for gum tapping through the technique developed by ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, India.

The present study was initiated with the objective to assess the feeding strategy comprising Prosopis juliflora pods (PJP) in two forms as alternative feed resource for sustainable goat production for dry season in arid areas. Eighteen growing goats (Marwari and Sirohi breed) were distributed into three groups. The roughage offered was similar to all the animals, however, concentrate mixture was standard for the goats of control group (PJP0), whereas, 50 percent ground PJP in PJPG group and 50 percent as such (entire/non-grinded) dried PJP in PJPE group were included by replacing the standard concentrate mixture. The observations on the animals were recorded for a period of seven months. Fifty percent replacement of concentrate mixture from similar to that of the standard concentrate mixture of PJP0 with crushed and entire PJP made diets economical by ₹ 471.50 and 521.50/quintal basis in PJPG and PJPE, respectively. Daily dry matter intake (DMI)/100 kg body weight was 4.53±0.19, 4.68±0.11 and 4.79± 0.17 kg in PJP0, PJPG and PJPE, respectively. The average body weight gain and body condition score of the animals did not differ significantly between the groups. Five goats from all the groups were bred, which became pregnant and delivered kids normally. The results revealed that the feeding of concentrate mixtures containing either 50% ground or entire PJP to the arid goats did not adversely affect growth performance, reproduction and cud chewing. Moreover, the adopted feeding strategy made Prosopis juliflora incorporated concentrate diets more economical than the commercial one.

The Himalayan mountain range has significant bearing on the climate of India as its towering height created a vast rain shadow zone in the north Among the cold arid parts of India Ladakh in Jammu amp Kashmir is one of the highest m to m asl and coldest Leh and Kargil are two districts which jointly form Ladakh region the principal cold desert of India Leh with an area of sq km is the largest district in the country located in an altitudinal range from to m above mean sea level Being cold arid region the temperature ranges is between deg C in winter to deg C in summer In general area has short mild summer to long cold winter Agriculture and animal husbandry in cold arid region are interwoven with the intricate fabric of the society in cultural religious and economical ways It is beyond any doubt that livestock production is the major production system of Ladakh region of the Indian Trans Himalaya Because of dissected topography with snow clad high mountains and absolutely inhospitable environmental conditions areas available for cultivation and other utilizable land uses are not much Majority of farmers follow mixed farming however lsquo Changpas rsquo who inhibit Changthang area of Leh district follows a nomadic life always moving in search of greener pastures to ensure continuity to their livelihood source in one of the environmentally harshest areas of the country The grassland vegetation in the Indian Himalaya occupies nearly of the geographical area and five grassland types are defined In animal feed supply cereals and other cash crops have a major role Fodder availability in cold arid regions is per cent of the actual requirement however in some areas it is more than Alfalfa and crop residue are major parts of fodder base in cold arid region of India A case study of village Nang indicated a deficit of fodder to the tune of at village level Huge deficit of fodder at village level itself explain great significance of high altitude pasture lands In general averagedeficiency of fodder is the major constraint for livestock production systems of cold arid regions of Ladakh In fact shortage of alfalfa and receding area of cereal crops are the main bottleneck for livestock production because ample amount of fodder in form of straw is available from cereal crops however in case of alfalfa seeds of the species being imported face difficulty in adaptation due to severe winter and other factors In terms of energy output the higher values were also obtained for cereal crops rsquo fodder Though energy output values for fodder was maximum for alfalfa a unique fodder species for the region but it required very high amount of inputs in comparison to cereal crops Even then the importance of alfalfa as a fodder crop will be there for sustaining the availability of fodder Understanding of the environment and a vast body of traditional knowledge systems have enabled mountain people to plan and implement activities such as traditional land and livestock management practices that are still fundamental for low intensity production systems at high altitudes Therefore the immediate focus is required for re generation of pasture lands and increase in alfalfa production areas

Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana/Project (IGNP) in the Thar Desert is one of the largest irrigation projects in the world. As a result of this initiative, 1.86 million hectare area has come under cultivation. Although irrigation has greatly increased the agricultural production potential, it has also rendered vast tracts of land under waterlogged category (leading to salinization as well) on account of seepage and deep percolation losses from the irrigation network and lack of a proper drainage system. The concept of biodrainage, removal of groundwater through evapotranspiration, has emerged as an effective way to tackle this problem. Such an approach is economical and eco-friendly. However, more research is required to fully understand the implications, especially at farm level. The policy to control the problems associated with waterlogging and salinization should include biodrainage, reduced water allowance, efficient irrigation, and conjunctive uses.

Prosopis juliflora application in restoration of contaminated/degraded land, phytoremediation, CO 2 sequestration and carbonation technology, utilization for production of bioethanol, value additions and value chain products, medicinal uses, and ecosystem services are covered in this chapter. Prosopis is considered to be one of the problematic, invasive, exotic tree species that has provoked special attention in the tropics. Originating in South America, it has been gradually colonized in the hot and semiarid zones of the world. Its main advantages are as a supply of fuelwood, a stabilizer of sand dunes, and to combat desertification. Despite these numerous advantages it has become an invasive species with a certain degree of negative impact on the environment. As per verbal information from forest officials of erstwhile Andhra Pradesh, India, Prosopis was introduced in 1877 when it served as a source of fuelwood for poor villages, without which conventional forests would have disappeared to a considerable extent.

Leh district is situated between 32-36° N latitude and 75-80° E longitude with an altitude ranging from 2500 to 6000 m above mean sea level. Leh is the largest district in the country with an area of 45,100 Km2. Agriculture is the main occupation of the rural people of the district. Initial analysis of the data revealed that the acreage of wheat crop increased from 2003 onward. Notably, a simultaneous decrease in acreage of barley crop was observed. It is noticeable that wheat crop replaced the barley crop from 2003 onwards. Such change in cropping pattern was found related with change in weather condition. It was observed that from 2003 onward monthly mean of daily minimum temperature during May increased from 4 °C to 8 °C up to 2007. Similarly, monthly mean of daily maximum temperature was observed higher (>20 °C) before 2003 but decreased during 2003 to 2009 (range 15 to 20 °C). Snowfall was a common phenomenon during month of May before 2003, but was not observed during 2003 to 2009. Therefore, it is hypothesized that increase in both minimum and maximum temperature during May had enabled the farmers to grow wheat in place of barley. Moreover, during the month of April, snowfall events were significantly reduced in 2003-2009 and in month of May snowfall events was not recorded at all. This may perhaps another reason which enabled farmers to sow the wheat crop during last week of April to mid of May. Interestingly during last two years, the cropping pattern is again reversed. The acreage under wheat crop was decreased and the acreage under barley increased. Such reversal may be due to re-occurrence of snowfall events during first two weeks of May, which was absent during 2003-2009. Therefore, it is quite apparent that weather condition influenced the cropping pattern and crop acreage. However, many other factors like timely availability of seed, quality of seeds as per need of local farmers as they prefer some straw producing varieties, crop rotation pattern, etc., also plays some role in shifting of cropping pattern. Long term data base on crop-weather relationship among with the other factors may help in developing crop weather modeling.

Agroforestry systems combining tree/shrub, crop, grass and livestock have great scope and role in optimizing land productivity and environmental protection in the fragile ecosystems. Agroforestry with suitable tree species in different arid land forms thus assumes much significance for desertification control and ecosystem services as well. Agroforestry that is traditionally followed in these regions is a complete, ecologically sustainable livelihood system. To meet both present and future demands, policies need to be supportive of the development of such traditional agroforestry systems based on synergism with nature. Vigorous adoption of agroforestry in the region is recommended for maintenance of productivity and sustainability in this region. The characteristics of trees which are generally considered to be environmentally beneficial are on account of their ability to utilize incoming solar radiation throughout the year; to enrich micro sites by depositing litter in the topsoil for its subsequent utilization by crops/grasses; to modify the microclimate, which can bring about favorable effect on the soil and associated plant species. The appropriate combination and management of tree/shrub (both forest and fruit), crops, grasses and livestock units (in mixed herds) will open up more opportunities for livelihood on a sustainable basis.

Ceropegia bulbosa Roxb. is a narrow endemic, tuberous twiner of Asclepiadaceae family. It is medicinally important: tubers are nutritive and edible, leaves are digestive and a cure for dysentery and diarrhea. Exploitation for its tubers and poor regeneration of this species has shrunk its distribution. In order to know its present status, we report here the results of its appraisal in Rajasthan, using remote sensing and ground truthing in the past five years (2009-14). A base map of C. bulbosa was prepared using Geographical Information System (GIS), open source software Quantum GIS, SAGA. The Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) +Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER), Global Digital Elevation Model (GDEM) Satellite Data were used in this study. ASTER and GDEM Data was clipped with district boundary and provided color range to get elevation information. A digital elevation model of Rajasthan physiography was developed from ASTER GDEM of 30-m resolution. GIS layers of Area of occurrences for C. bulbosa plant and elevation were created. This map along with topographic sheets of 1:50000 were used for field traversing and ground truthing as per GPS location inferred from map. Its geographic distribution was assessed using MaxEnt distribution modelling algorithm that employed 12 presence locality data, 19 bioclimatic variables, and elevation data. Results of this modelling predicted occurrence of C. bulbosa in the districts of Sirohi, Jalore, Barmer, Pali, Ajmer, Jhalawar, Dungarpur, Banswara, Baran, Kota, Bundi and Chittorgarh. Ground validation in these districts revealed its presence only at four places in three districts confirming its rarity. Analysis of dominance at their sites of occurrence revealed their poor populations and sub dominant status (RIV= 20-32) and very low density (2-12 plants per tenth ha).

Of the total area of arid zones of the world, Africa, accounts for 46.1 % followed by Asia (35.5 %). Majority of rest 19.4 % of arid zones are spread over in Australia, North America (Mexico and Southern part of USA), and South America. The hot Indian arid zone is spread in 31.7 million hectare area of which major part is in northwestern India (28.57 m ha) and some in southern India (3.13 m ha). The arid regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana together constitute Great Indian Desert, better known as Thar. Arid western Rajasthan covers 61 % of total hot arid areas of the country and thus, forms the principal hot arid region of the country. Major part of it occurs between Aravalli ranges on the east and southeast and Thal desert of Pakistan (Thal desert is simply the western extension of Thar, only name has been changed) which is spread up to Suleman Kithara ranges in extreme west. The production and life support system in this part of hot Indian arid zone are constrained by climatic limitations. Sand dunes are dominant land formation of principal hot arid zone. More than 64 % area is sandy and intensities of dune vary from place to place. The human population density of this part of the country is quite high (127 person/km(2)) as compared to global average of 6-8 persons per km(2) for arid zones. Large tracts of lands in Thar desert region of Rajasthan having widely scattered trees/shrubs of various species in association with crops of food grain and fodder as the best example of traditional agroforestry. The people of the region have evolved agroforestry-based drought protective mechanism through their ingenuity and centuries old experience, which has descended from one generation to other. Depending upon climatic, edaphic, socioeconomic, and cultural situation, drought hardy woody perennials, which are multipurpose in nature, are integrated in farming systems to develop productive systems in form of traditional agroforestry. This paper describes the structure and production functions of traditional agroforestry systems of the region and their improvement with emphasis on livelihood improvement and climate change adaptation potential of these systems.

Potential soil loss rate by wind and water erosion in Jodhpur region has been assessed through Revised Wind Erosion Equation (RWEQ) and Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) approach, respectively. In RWEQ approach, daily wind speed data of Jodhpur region were used to compute average wind factor at fortnight interval. Erodible fraction and soil crust factor of RWEQ was mapped using available soil series data. Soil loss through wind erosion was also assessed through field experiments. In case of RUSLE approach all component factors were calculated in GIS environment and potential soil loss rate map was prepared. On an average, maximum potential soil loss due to wind erosion has been approximated during second fortnight of May. Annual soil loss rate by water erosion has been found low (<12 t ha(-1)) in about 87% area of the region.

The Central Arid Zone Research Institute (Jodhpur, India) developed a technique for gum arabic extraction from Acacia senegal in which 4 ml per tree of a solution of Ethephon (2-chloroethylphosphonic acid) containing 195 mg active ingredient per millilitre was used as the gum inducer during the hot dry season (March to June). Here, we report four experiments that assess the effect of various doses of Ethephon, of season of Ethephon application, of various land forms and the sustainability of the technique over years on gum and seed production. The technique resulted in a dramatic increase in average annual gum yields from 3.6 g per tree with no treatment to 425 g per tree undergoing alternate-year treatment. Every year, the application of Ethephon resulted in successive reduction in gum yields as well as seed yields, while alternate-year application ensured a stable gum production but also entailed successive reduction in seed yields. These findings show that Ethephon application results in a much higher gum production, but they also suggest long-term consequent effects on tree productivity.