Background and Study AimOne of the major health policy issues for the 1.3 million U.S. military personnel who supported combat operations in Iraq and Afghanistan has been their post deployment adjustment, in particular, reservists after having returned and reverted back to their part-time military service. This study provided preliminary estimates of illicit drug use among deployed reserve military personnel and its relationship to combat exposure.MethodRelying on archived survey data, the present study examined illicit drug use among Army National Guard (ARNG) (N = 4,567 in 50 company-sized units) who had been deployed to Iraq in 2010 and returned recently to home station.ResultsSelf-reported illicit drug use was relatively low during post deployment (2.2%) but use was related to specific combat events, such as having seen killed or wounded or having killed and wounded others. Feelings of anger and frustration associated with combat (i.e., experienced trauma, seen wounded or killed, or wounded or killed someone) were predictive of illicit drug use and mediated the relationship of combat events to drug use.ConclusionFindings provide a broader understanding of illicit drug use among veterans and suggest preventive strategies for drug use.

The present study examined career intentions in two samples—home-based or garrison ( N = 12,583 soldiers in 180 companies) and deployed and recently returned soldiers ( N = 4,551 in 50 companies). Proportionally, fewer deployed soldiers than home-based garrison soldiers intended to stay in reserve military service. Among deployed soldiers, those who reported having experienced combat trauma, having had wounded or killed someone, and having had a friend killed in combat were less likely to plan to continue military service; reservists more likely to continue military service had returned to the same civilian job after deployment. Among deployed and garrison soldiers, fewer financial difficulties were associated with higher likelihood of continuing reserve military service. Examples from the social constructionist perspective of reserve military service are used to elaborate on mechanisms in these associations.

A major health policy concern of deployed U.S. military personnel has been the observed high occurrence of postdeployment behavioral health problems. Unit cohesiveness is considered one of several protective factors against the negative effects of combat exposure. Studies, however, have not examined cohesiveness' group-level effects on the relationship of combat stressors to behavioral health problems. These relationships were examined both at the soldier level and unit level using hierarchical linear modeling. Recently, returned deployed Army National Guard soldiers (N = 4,567 in 50 companies) responded to questions about combat exposure, postdeployment unit cohesiveness, and behavioral health problems. Combat events were associated with more suicidal thoughts, alcohol misuse, and behavioral health problems. By comparison, unit cohesiveness was associated with fewer behavioral health problems both at the individual level (all three outcome variables) and unit level (alcohol misuse and behavioral health problems). At the soldier level, the buffering effect of unit cohesiveness was evident only for alcohol misuse. At the unit level the protective factor of unit cohesiveness on unit members' behavioral health was evident for alcohol misuse and behavioral health problems. In addition, the relationship of combat events to suicidal thoughts was less evident among units having higher rather than lower levels of unit cohesiveness (cross-leveling effect). Findings suggest that integrative unit relationships better enable soldiers to adjust to combat exposure. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

OBJECTIVE:A continued health concern of the U.S. military has been unhealthy alcohol use by its service members, in particular among several subpopulations--the deployed, the combat-exposed, and the reserve component. This study provides prevalence estimates of post-deployment alcohol use among recently deployed Army National Guard (ARNG) personnel and compares the rates with those of soldiers in previously published studies. We also examine deployment experiences and combat events associated with postdeployment alcohol use and the role of negative emotions in this relationship.METHOD:Study data were cross-sectional, retrospective soldier responses to an ongoing survey of health and well-being, called the Reintegration Unit Risk Inventory. The study sample consisted of recently returned Operation Iraqi Freedom ARNG soldiers (N = 4,567 in 50 companies), many of whom had participated in combat. Soldiers' alcohol use was compared with that of a sample of ARNG soldiers serving in their traditional part-time military service role who had responded to the Unit Risk Inventory, as well as with alcohol use reported in the research literature for deployed military personnel. Relationships among deployment and combat experiences, negative emotions, and postdeployment alcohol use were examined using multiple regression and mediation analyses.RESULTS:Combat events were associated with unhealthy alcohol use during postdeployment. In addition, postdeployment negative emotions mediated this relationship.CONCLUSIONS:Findings have implications for understanding the trauma-alcohol use relationship and for prevention of unhealthy alcohol use among military personnel.

A major concern of military leaders, health scientists, and policymakers has been increased suicides among U.S. military personnel. Few studies have examined how risk-taking conveys suicide risk. The present study examined survey data (12,612 soldiers in 180 company-sized units) obtained from an under-studied military population, the Army National Guard (ARNG). One-fifth to one-third of the soldiers reported risk-taking behaviors, such as alcohol misuses, unauthorized work absences, criminal behaviors, and unsafe sex practices. Risk-taking behaviors were simultaneously related to suicidal thoughts, plans, and attempts, namely: unauthorized work absences (Odds-Ratio = 6.38, 95% CI 4.06-10.02), alcohol misuses (6.12, 4.56-8.20), such as driving under the influence (DUI), committing illegal acts while drinking, etc., and criminal behaviors (3.00, 2.05-4.39) to suicide thoughts; unauthorized work absences (7.63, 4.28-13.59), alcohol misuses (4.36, 2.73-6.96), and criminal behaviors (4.30, 2.60-7.11) to suicide plans; and unauthorized work absences (41.40, 19.40-88.38) and criminal behaviors (6.10, 2.95-12.60), and unsafe sex practices (2.37, 1.29-4.35) to suicide attempts. Risk-taking behaviors that showed stronger associations with suicide risk are interpreted as likely reducing inhibitions against violence and self-harm, namely, criminal behaviors and unauthorized work absences with alcohol misuses. Several practical implications of risk-taking findings are offered for suicide prevention.

This study examines reserve military service from a perspective of social construction-the ways in which the reservist's conscious experiences are constructed to give meaning to military service. Content descriptions of conscious experiences of reserve military service are identified in past studies. Constructions fell into four broad categories: (1) complementary to life-reserve military service providing wanted satisfaction not otherwise achieved, material gain, or ideological commitment; (2) equitable arrangement-understood compensation for self-sacrifice; (3) discordant identity-requirements of military life blatantly or surreptitiously conflicting with established identity and civilian life; and (4) self-definition-reserve military service understood as an aspect of self-identity. Directions for integrating these constructions as a basis for future research are identified and discussed.

Research studies have shown an association between military service and later civic involvement, largely defined as political activities. The National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 2008 ( N = 95,650) was used to compare veteran and nonveteran students on community service activities and voting. Proportionately more nonveteran than veteran students reported community service (i.e., working with children both in educational and noneducational settings and fund-raising). Nonveteran students also were more likely to have participated in community service in last 12 months. The two groups did not differ in average hours spent on community service per month (16 hr). Veterans compared to nonveterans were far more likely to have registered to vote (78% vs. 59%) and to have voted (90% vs. 82%). When gender, age, race, and income were considered in comparisons, previous differences were not statistically different. Results are discussed relative to past proposals and research regarding veterans’ civic engagement.

Since 2002, the U.S. military has seen a dramatic rise in suicides. Risk was thought to be associated with having been deployed, although little or no association has been found. This association may be obscured by the omission of important aspects of deployment, such as time since return from deployment and combat exposure. Survey data obtained from Army National Guard soldiers who had been deployed to Iraq during 2010 were examined (N = 4567 soldiers in 50 company-sized units). Overall, the relationship of suicidal thoughts to time since having returned was not statistically significant. However, among soldiers who reported more than one combat event, twice as many soldiers who had returned over a year ago reported suicidal thoughts than soldiers who returned 1 year or under. In addition, about twice as many soldiers who had participated in a traumatic combat event or in direct combat reported suicidal thoughts after having returned over 1 year than soldiers who returned more recently. Findings are discussed relative to future studies of suicide risk among reserve personnel, especially, a year or more since having returned.

An issue of major policy interest in the U.S. military has been interpersonal violence (IPV), especially relative to the frequent and lengthy deployments of U.S. service members to Iraq and Afghanistan. Lacking, however, are estimates of perpetrators of IPV, in particular, for reservists who have been 30% of the ground combat force. In the present study, Army National Guard soldiers (N = 4,567 in 50 company-sized units) responded to questions about deployment and combat, IPV, and suicidal behaviors. Over a tenth (12.2%) of the soldiers reported having done any aggressive behaviors toward significant others or children during postdeployment. More lengthy and repeated deployments were associated with perpetration of IPV. Having killed or wounded someone and having experienced some form of combat trauma were much more strongly associated with IPV perpetration. Suicidal behaviors were associated with having committed IPV, with the greatest risk associated with suicide attempts. Findings are discussed in terms of underlying mechanisms of both IPV perpetration and suicidal behaviors.

Many have espoused the benefits of Family Readiness Groups (FRGs) for families of deployed soldiers. These include fostering family well-being (main effect) and buffering the family against the negative effects of stressful life events (moderating effect). Yet, few published studies have tested these hypothesized relationships. Survey responses gathered from returning deployed Army National Guard soldiers (N = 4,568 soldiers in 50 company-sized units) gave the opportunity to test hypothesized benefits of FRGs, both main and buffering effects. Half the sample of soldiers reported their families as having used FRGs. Two-thirds of the soldiers reported FRGs as being helpful to their families. On the whole, results supported hypotheses: More effective coping among family members was associated with FRG use (main effect), and FRGs appeared most beneficial to spouses who experienced more stressful events (buffering effect). FRG use and its associations with helpfulness to family and with family coping suggest FRGs are important resources for families of deployed soldiers, in particular, for families of reservists. Future directions for research and practice are proposed.

An interest of researchers and practitioners has been postdeployment adjustment of returned soldiers, though the primary focus has been investigating the prevalence of psychiatric conditions. Less attention has been paid to nonclinical conditions, which still have posed significant adjustment problems for soldiers, in particular, for reserve soldiers who revert back to civilian life, family, and employment. The present study examined the occurrence of postdeployment problems among returned Army National Guard soldiers (N =4,567 in 50 company-sized units). Survey items reliably indicated 7 problem areas. Highest prevalence of problems was being angry (35.9%) and being unable to sleep (43.3%), followed by alcohol abuse (25.1% reported 5 or more drinks in 1 day). Longer deployment lengths were associated with troubled relationships and aggression toward the significant other adult and children in the household. More deployments were associated with aggression toward household children. Self-reported general combat trauma and having killed or wounded someone were associated with all problem areas. Findings are discussed relative to how combat exposure likely alters soldiers' perceptions and behaviors, including feelings of loneliness and isolation, and risk-taking behaviors of alcohol abuse and aggression toward others.

Povzetek Po drugi svetovni vojni so se oborožene sile ZDA popolnjevale z vpoklicem ali obveznim služenjem vojaškega roka za fante. Ta praksa se je končala leta 1973 z uvedbo prostovoljnega popolnjevanja (All-Volunteer Force – AVF). Uvedba AVF pa je prinesla več novih izzivov, vključno z ustreznim pridobivanjem in zadrževanjem vojaškega kadra. Sčasoma je bilo treba sprejeti več prosilcev, saj se je pridobivanje kadra zmanjšalo. Bilo je manj zainteresiranih in ustreznih prosilcev, od teh pa še manj tistih, ki so ustrezali standardom. Ob uvedbi sprememb v nacionalni obrambni politiki in zaradi sodelovanja ZDA v nedavnih bojnih operacijah večjega obsega je prišlo do pomanjkanja pripravljenosti na področju pridobivanja in zadrževanja kadra. Nezadovoljiva pripravljenost se je najbolj kazala v rezervni sestavi, na kar se v tem članku tudi osredotočamo. S pomočjo opisa teh dogodkov prikazujemo medsebojno povezanost med pridobivanjem in zadrževanjem kadra ter pripravljenostjo, pri čemer kažemo na potrebo po bolj preudarnem razmisleku o tem, kako se vsak izmed njih izvaja, še zlasti v okviru AVF. Teorija identitete ponuja načine za razumevanje in razvijanje takih vrst vojaškega kadra, ki je potreben za lažje pridobivanje, zadrževanje in pripravo kadra. Ključne besede: vpoklic, obvezno služenje vojaškega roka, prostovoljno popolnjevanje, All-Volunteer Force – AVF, pridobivanje kadra, zadrževanje kadra, pripravljenost. Abstract After World War II “the draft”, or compulsory military service of young men, staffed U.S. forces. This practice ended in 1973 with the introduction of the All-Volunteer Force (AVF). However, staffing the AVF introduced several new challenges, including the adequate recruitment and retention of military personnel. Over time, more applicants had to be taken, as recruitment fell short. There were fewer interested and eligible applicants, and of these, even fewer who met the standards. A lack of readiness relating to both recruitment and retention became apparent as changes occurred in the national defense policy and the U.S.’s participation in recent large-scale combat operations. Inadequacies in readiness were most evident among the reserve forces – the focus of this paper. Through the description of these events, the inter-relationships between recruitment, retention, and readiness are demonstrated, pointing to the need for more deliberate thought with regard to how each is implemented, especially in the context of the AVF. Identity theory offers ways to understand and to develop the kinds of military personnel needed to better recruit, retain, and ready personnel. KEY WORDS draft, compulsory military service, all-volunteer force, recruitment, retention, readiness

In the past decade, the U.S. military has observed increased suicides among its personnel, and now, rates for the military services exceed civilian age-adjusted rates. Numerous and varied approaches to suicide prevention are now evident, though with measured success. To address this need, levels typically used in the health field to describe interventions (i.e., primary, secondary, and tertiary) are described and used. The discussion clarifies fundamental differences in the stage at which the negative health condition is intervened, and for the intervention, its purpose, target audience, and strategy aim among approaches to suicide prevention. More important current gaps and possible directions for future approaches to suicide prevention are identified. Lacking are secondary prevention approaches, in particular, those that more effectively identify those at-risk and provide access to appropriate behavioral health care. Research findings to-date suggest these would lead to decreased suicides. (PsycINFO Database Record

Sexual harassment has been associated with suicidal behaviors, and with the rise in suicides in the U.S. military, sexual harassment's role in suicide has been of growing interest. Lacking are studies that examine group- or unit-level variables in the relationship of sexual harassment to suicidal behaviors (thoughts, plans, and attempts). In this study, survey data from soldiers (12,567 soldiers in 180 company-sized units) who completed the Unit Risk Inventory administered during calendar year 2010 were analyzed using hierarchical linear modeling. At the individual level, sexual harassment was associated with a fivefold increase for risk of suicide. Reporting that leaders could be trusted was associated with a decreased suicide risk by about one-third. There was no statistically significant interaction between sexual harassment and trusted leaders in predicting the suicidal behaviors. At the group level, units or companies having higher levels of sexual harassment also had soldiers three times more at risk for suicide. A cross-leveling effect was also observed: Among units having higher levels of sexual harassment, the negative correlation (buffering effect of unit leaders on suicidal behaviors) was diminished. Implications of findings for preventing sexual harassment and suicide risk are discussed.

The present study examined the timing of suicide and its associated soldier background and postinvestigative events among deployed Army National Guard (ARNG) soldiers from calendar years 2007 through 2014. Suicide deaths were nearly equally distributed between soldiers who had been deployed and those who had not. Among those deployed, however, suicides occurred mostly 1 year or more after having returned from deployment. Soldier background and postsuicide investigative events were associated with the timing of suicide. Having more years of military service, more previous deployments, and being married were associated with in-theater suicides. Soldiers younger in age (17–24 years), single, nonprior service, and lower in rank, in addition to having parent-family conflicts, full-time employment problems, and military transition problems were associated with suicides that had occurred 1–120 days and 120–365 days since return from deployment. Soldiers aged (24–29 years), married, and higher in rank, along with more reported problems including past behavioral health conditions, postdeployment behavior health referrals, criminal behaviors, and military performance were associated with suicides that had occurred 1 year or more after return. Findings likely represent time periods of suicide vulnerability for identifiable groups of soldiers, based on soldier background and events surrounding the suicide. Practical and theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.

The present study described the types and amount of problems and services sought among returned deployed Army National Guard soldiers (4568 soldiers in 50 units). The study responds to gaps in the research literature to better understand community intervention needs of reservists. About half (48%) of the soldiers reported one or two problems, mostly those of psychological well-being, such as feelings of anger and frustration, upsetting memories, and troubled sleep (34% of the study sample), followed by problems of social support (18%), alcohol use (17%), feelings of isolation including suicidal thoughts (13%), and financial difficulties (11%). Having engaged in direct combat and having wounded or killed someone showed positive relationships with reported problems. One-third (35%) of soldiers who reported having used services went to one service and, generally, soldiers went to services related to their expressed problems. Variance in self-reported problems explained by service use was low, suggesting unsought postdeployment services.

Suicide, due to its increased occurrence in recent years, has been a chief concern of the U.S. military. While there have been many published studies on the topic, conspicuously absent are studies that have included reserve military personnel. To fill this gap, this study reports descriptive statistics of personnel information and events surrounding 706 Army National Guard suicides that had occurred from 2007 through 2014. Comparative personnel information for random samples of nonsuicides for similar years (8years, 1,000 cases per year) allowed examining factors associated most with suicide. Findings were very similar to those observed in the active duty Army and civilian populations. Primary risk factors for suicide were as follows: age (young), gender (male), and race/ethnicity (White). Most suicides occurred in nonmilitary status (86%) involving personal firearms (72%). Most frequent events surrounding the suicide were as follows: poor military performance (36% of all suicides), parent-family relationship problems (28%), substance abuse (27%), past behavioral health problem (20%), current behavioral health problems (10%), income problems (22%), and full-time employment problems (18%). Implications of findings for suicide prevention are discussed.