The need for energy in water provision and use is obvious, however the drivers are often complex, difficult to assess, and often inconsistently presented. Here we build a clearer definition and conceptual framework of “water-related energy”. We apply this framework to harmonise data and results across disparate studies so that regional estimates of water-related energy can be compared in a consistent way for the first time. We show how widely different boundaries have been used for analysis including or excluding: water and wastewater utilities, as well as residential, commercial, industrial, and agricultural water users. Consequently, understanding of what constitutes “water-related energy” is widely divergent. We demonstrate how up to 12.6% of total national primary energy use can be influenced by water, when (i) water-related energy of water users, and (ii) energy use by water utilities, are all included. Water heating for residential, commercial, and industrial purposes is the dominant fraction. Water and wastewater utilities use 0.4–2.3% of primary energy or 0.6–6.2% of regional electricity, mostly for water pumping. This is substantial, but lower than frequent claims in the media and reports. To answer how is miscommunication influencing policy? we undertake a novel systematic tracking of communication to demonstrate distortion between research and its application in government reports, media and policy. We show that significant confusion is caused by (i) unclear or inconsistent boundaries (ii) widely differing use of terms for water “system”, “sector”, and “supply”, (iii) frequent failure to distinguish ‘energy’ from ‘electricity’ and (iv) wide use of non-standard units. While acknowledging that media is often less accurate than government reports, and that peer-reviewed articles generally have highest overall quality, we observe miscommunication and inconsistency in all publication forms. We argue a global protocol is needed to improve consistency of analysis and sharpen policy towards sustainable water end use because this is where most water-related energy occurs. We establish a foundational framework and definitions for this protocol while recognising much more needs to be done. The strong practical and theoretical implications of the work for sustainable cleaner production are elucidated. This is timely, as global quantification of water-related energy has yet to occur particularly for water end-use which is the dominant component.

4 This chapter has been allocated 52 template pages, currently it counts 55 pages (excluding this page 5 and the bibliography), so it is 3 pages over target. Reviewers are kindly asked to indicate where the 6 chapter could be shortened. 7

Water-related energy accounts for around one-quarter of California's energy use. Most of the influence is within cities. This project aimed to identify research and policy needs associated with managing energy related to urban water. A workshop was convened with diverse representation from water and energy sectors in federal (US), state (California) and municipal governments, research and regulatory agencies, universities, utilities, not-for profit and private sectors. The workshop established a vision of future cities, including elements of success, research needs and barriers. A subsequent on-line survey was used to estimate the potential, effort and 'potential-to-effort' ratio of each suggested element. First suggested steps in the roadmap include: development of educational programmes, combined standards, guidelines, funding and planning for water and energy efficiency, improved understanding and management of factors motivating consumers, and improved methods to quantify and track targets of 'water-related energy and related greenhouse gas emissions'. The 'roadmap' could help streamline future effort and sequencing action. The authors note and reflect on the importance of representation at such a workshop, and an effort is made to understand sources of variability in viewpoints. The semi-quantitative method used could have relevance to wider resource management issues and complex problem resolution.

Meeting a greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction target of 80% below 1990 levels in the year 2050 requires detailed long-term planning due to complexity, inertia, and path dependency in the energy system. A detailed investigation of supply and demand alternatives is conducted to assess requirements for future California energy systems that can meet the 2050 GHG target. Two components are developed here that build novel analytic capacity and extend previous studies: (1) detailed bottom-up projections of energy demand across the building, industry and transportation sectors; and (2) a high-resolution variable renewable resource capacity planning model (SWITCH) that minimizes the cost of electricity while meeting GHG policy goals in the 2050 timeframe. Multiple pathways exist to a low-GHG future, all involving increased efficiency, electrification, and a dramatic shift from fossil fuels to low-GHG energy. The electricity system is found to have a diverse, cost-effective set of options that meet aggressive GHG reduction targets. This conclusion holds even with increased demand from transportation and heating, but the optimal levels of wind and solar deployment depend on the temporal characteristics of the resulting load profile. Long-term policy support is found to be a key missing element for the successful attainment of the 2050 GHG target in California.

Ürge-Vorsatz, D, Eyre, N, Graham, P, Harvey, D, Hertwich, E, Jiang, Y, Kornevall, C, Majumdar, M, McMahon, JE, Mirasgedis, S, Murakami, S, Novikova, A, Janda, K, Masera, O, McNeil, M, Petrichenko, K & Herrero, ST 2012, Energy End-Use: Buildings. in TB Johansson, A Patwardhan, N Nakicenovic & L Gomez-Echeverri (eds), Global Energy Assessment: Toward a Sustainable Future. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 649-760 … Energy End-Use: Buildings. / Ürge-Vorsatz, Diana; Eyre, Nick; Graham, Peter; Harvey, Danny; Hertwich, Edgar; Jiang, Yi; Kornevall, Christian; Majumdar, Mili; McMahon, James E.; Mirasgedis, Sevastianos; Murakami, Shuzo; Novikova, Aleksandra; Janda, Kathryn; Masera, Omar; McNeil, Michael; Petrichenko, Ksenia; Herrero, Sergio Tirado … Global Energy Assessment: Toward a Sustainable Future. ed. / Thomas B. Johansson; Anand …

This study seeks to provide policymakers and other stakeholders with actionable information towards a road map for reducing energy consumption in the most cost-effective way. A major difference between the current study and some others is that we focus on individual equipment types that might be the subject of policies - such as labels, energy performance standards, and incentives - to affect market transformation in the short term, and on high-efficiency technology options that are available today. The approach of the study is to assess the impact of short-term actions on long-term impacts. “Short term” market transformation is assumed to occur by 2015, while “long-term” energy demand reduction impacts are assessed in 2030. In the intervening years, most but not all of the equipment studied will turn over completely. The 15-year time frame is significant for many products however, indicating that delay of implementation postpones impacts such as net economic savings and mitigation of emissions of carbon dioxide. Such delays would result in putting in place energy-wasting technologies, postponing improvement until the end of their service life, or potentially resulting in expensive investment either in additional energy supplies or in early replacement to achieve future energy or emissions reduction targets.

Human habitations require energy and water, which are increasingly interdependent. Energy systems have changed from using water for mechanical energy to building dams to provide irrigation water for agriculture and hydroelectricity. Large volumes of water are required to cool thermal electricity-generating stations whether coal, natural gas, nuclear, or solar powered. Changes in cooling technology are reducing water withdrawals while increasing water consumption. Water produced from fossil fuel production represents environmental challenges and supply opportunities. Some renewable energy sources, such as wind turbines and photovoltaics, have far lower water requirements. Increasing development of biofuels creates a direct connection between water and energy systems. Energy, mostly for pumps, is necessary for supplying potable water and treating wastewater. Pumping from deeper underground as well as removing more contaminants (e.g., medicines, agricultural chemicals) and salt requires more energy. Water and wastewater treatment can dominate electricity demand in municipalities. Water reuse requires energy for treatment and pumping. Life cycle assessments and integrated resource planning strive to account for the total impacts.

This article asks three connected questions: First, does the public view private and public utilities differently, and if so, does this affect attitudes to conservation? Second, do public and private utilities differ in their approaches to conservation? Finally, do differences in the approaches of the utilities, if any, relate to differences in public attitudes? We survey public attitudes in California toward (hypothetical but plausible) voluntary and mandated water conservation, as well as to price increases, during a recent period of shortage. We do this by interviewing households in three pairs of adjacent public and private utilities. We also survey managers of public and private urban water utilities to see if they differ in their approaches to conservation and to their customers. On the user side we do not find pronounced differences, though a minority of customers in all private companies would be more willing to conserve or pay higher prices under a public operator. No respondent in public utility said the reverse. Negative attitudes toward private operators were most pronounced in the pair marked by a controversial recent privatization and a price hike. Nonetheless, we find that California's history of recurrent droughts and the visible role of the state in water supply and drought management undermine the distinction between public and private. Private utilities themselves work to underplay the distinction by stressing the collective ownership of the water source and the collective value of conservation. Overall, California's public utilities appear more proactive and target-oriented in asking their customers to conserve than their private counterparts and the state continues to be important in legitimating and guiding conservation behavior, whether the utility is in public hands or private.

Prediction algorithms for the secondary structure of RNA from the primary sequence have been developed. A series of three computer programs search the nucleotide sequence for stable helical regions and from these generate a list of possible structures. These are evaluated by free energy criteria.

New single-family home construction represents a significant and important market for the introduction of energy-efficient gas-fired space heating and water-heating equipment. In the new construction market, the choice of furnace and water-heater type is primarily driven by first cost considerations and the availability of power vent and condensing water heaters. Few analysis have been performed to assess the economic impacts of the different combinations of space and water-heating equipment. Thus, equipment is often installed without taking into consideration the potential economic and energy savings of installing space and water-heating equipment combinations. In this study, we use a life-cycle cost analysis that accounts for uncertainty and variability of the analysis inputs to assess the economic benefits of gas furnace and water-heater design combinations. This study accounts not only for the equipment cost but also for the cost of installing, maintaining, repairing, and operating the equipment over its lifetime. Overall, this study, which is focused on US single-family new construction households that install gas furnaces and storage water heaters, finds that installing a condensing or power-vent water heater together with condensing furnace is the most cost-effective option for the majority of these houses. Furthermore, the findings suggest that the new construction residential market could be a target market for the large-scale introduction of a combination of condensing or power-vent water heaters with condensing furnaces.

NEMS projections of residential and commercial energy demand patterns, as well as predictions about these sectors’ response to various energy policies, are a complex function of model structure, input data, functional form assumptions, and other factors and inputs. The specific assumptions regarding households’ and firms’ decision-making are one important component. This paper reviews research relevant to certain of these assumptions, including studies on demographic influences, the magnitudes and interpretations of hurdle rates for energy technology and efficiency investments, consumers’ and firms’ expectations regarding such variables as future energy prices, and energy price and income elasticities. We recommend possible applications of these findings to further development of the NEMS Residential and Commercial modules.

In the near future, the USA will be facing constraints on energy availability owing to the heightened demand for both energy and water, especially during droughts and summers. This is especially true in the American Southwest. Increasing stress on the inextricably linked resource availability of both water and energy can be mitigated with integrated planning. Exchanging data is an important component to current and future mitigation approaches within the Energy-Water Nexus (EWN). We describe the types of relationships that are formed in the US EWN, and address the data-sharing obstacles. Approaches to removing such obstacles are presented, based on case studies.