Globally, species with small distributions face disproportionate extinction risk, with the impacts of land use change more likely to have catastrophic consequences. Identifying, protecting and managing sites where such species occur is essential for minimising their extinction risk. Yet across Australia, efforts to protect and manage such species' habitats have hitherto been insufficient. Here, we present an example of an analytical and interpretive pathway for the conservation of such species, for a continental-scale case study. We identified 305 Critically Endangered species that have narrow ranges (<20,000 km(2)), and are distributed in fewer than six discrete patches. We refined existing species' habitat maps with advice from 18 experts via a modified Delphi approach. We assessed how much of each species' habitat is outside protected areas and considered to have agricultural capability, potentially elevating risk of conversion. We identified similar to 85,000 km(2) of habitat (similar to 1% of Australia) for these 305 species that must receive protection and management if the nation is going to meet its commitment to halt new extinctions. Approximately half of this habitat is outside the protected area estate, including the entire distribution of 39 species. Approximately 55% of habitat outside of protected areas had at least some agricultural capability. Protecting and managing the habitats of these narrow-range species should be a high priority in state and national conservation policy. Our case study serves as a template for the identification of important habitat for threatened species and could be applied in other regions of the world.

Documenting new colonisations of species and rates of establishment on islands is important for studying ecological interactions with resident species and adds to our understanding of island biogeography. Here, I document the apparent recent establishment of the Lurcher Yoma sabina in the Fiji Islands, a butterfly species previously unrecorded in Fiji in the published literature, some 830 km away from its closest known occurrence in Vanuatu. Based on records in iNaturalist, colonisation is likely to have occurred in the early 2020s.

Area-based conservation is critical for conserving biodiversity, but its success depends on understanding and addressing its social dimensions. Here we share key reflections from an interdisciplinary working group studying the social implications of expanding area-based conservation under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework’s Target 3, also known as 30×30. Over two years, our interdisciplinary working group collaborated through workshops, quantitative spatial analysis and qualitative case studies to explore how approaches to implementing Target 3 may create challenges and opportunities for people living in and around protected and conserved areas, particularly since international and even national priorities can sometimes conflict with local aspirations. Our reflections emphasise that implementing Target 3 is not only an ecological challenge but also a profoundly social one. Based on insights from our collective work, we identify five ways forward for a socially just Target 3: (1) fostering dialogue across perspectives to support more inclusive solutions; (2) giving greater attention to who is affected; (3) balancing the focus on ‘where’ conservation is implemented with more attention to ‘how’ it is governed and managed; (4) mainstreaming social data in conservation planning; and (5) connecting insights across scales. By sharing these reflections, we aim to support ongoing efforts to foreground social considerations in conservation policy and practice.

Shellfish reefs are among the most degraded of all coastal habitats due mainly to historical wild commercial harvest, sedimentation, introduced species, and disease. Until the 20th century, most estuaries and bays across southern Australia contained shellfish reefs. Efforts to restore these endangered ecosystems commenced in the mid‐2010s. This study reports ecological responses to some of the first restored shellfish reefs in southern Australia comprising Ostrea angasi (native flat oysters) and Mytilus galloprovinciali s (blue mussels). Here we report the methods used to restore 22.7 ha of shellfish reef area (restoration footprint of 18,027 m 2 ) at locations in Victoria (Port Phillip Bay), South Australia (Gulf St Vincent), Western Australia (Oyster Harbour) and provide an overview of the ecological trajectory and biodiversity outputs from the restoration areas compared to control sites across the period 2017–2020. We document progress toward restoration benchmarks for shellfish, fish, and species richness metrics. The early results of these restoration efforts demonstrate progression toward restoration targets due to increasing shellfish density and size, as well as the development of the associated ecological community, including fish, mobile invertebrates, and epifauna. Finally, we identify the predominant species in the associated faunal community, including species of commercial or recreational interest such as Chrysophrys auratus (pink snapper).

Red-shouldered Hawks (Buteo lineatus) in northern latitudes of their range in North America consume mostly mammals while in southern states they consume mostly amphibians and reptiles. Here we document occurrences of Red-shouldered Hawks consuming avocado (Persea americana) fruit in Santa Barbara, California, USA, between 2020-2024, the associated behavior of the hawks, and discuss consumption of avocado fruit by other raptors. This brings the number of raptor species documented undertaking frugivory to 33. Las aguilillas Buteo lineatus de latitudes norte & ntilde;as de su rango de distribuci & oacute;n en Norteam & eacute;rica, mientras que aqu & eacute;llas del sur consumen principalmente anfibios y reptiles. En este trabajo documentamos incidentes de estas aguilillas consumiendo frutos de aguacate (Persea americana) en Santa Barbara, California, EUA, entre 2020-2024, el comportamiento asociado de las aguilillas y discutimos el consumo de frutos del aguacate por otras rapaces. Esto aumenta el n & uacute;mero de rapaces con registros documentados de frugivor & iacute;a a 33.

Private landholders play a critical role in global biodiversity conservation as they manage significant portions of land in many countries. Understanding the motivations and barriers related to landholders' uptake of formal conservation agreements, such as conservation covenants, is essential for scaling up and prioritizing investment in biodiversity conservation. However, we currently have a limited understanding of how landholders' experiences and perceptions of past and future threats from extreme weather events relate to intentions to adopt conservation covenants. Knowledge of this is likely to be critical for designing private land conservation programs under climate change. To address this, we applied a protection motivation theory to explore whether the experience of extreme weather events (i.e., drought, bushfire, and flood) and climate change risk perceptions predicted stated intentions to adopt conservation covenants. Using a survey of landholders in New South Wales, Australia (N = 294), multivariate structural equation models were run, each tailored to a specific extreme weather event as well as a model combining all events. We found that landholders' beliefs in the effectiveness of conservation covenants (response efficacy belief) and their perceptions of the severity of future extreme weather events were positively and significantly related to their likelihood to adopt conservation covenants. Moreover, the perceived severity of extreme weather events mediated the effect of the extreme weather event experience and environmental values on landholders' stated adoption intentions. In the event-specific models, flood severity perceptions mediated participants' experience of flood on covenant adoption intentions, while bushfire severity perceptions significantly mediated the impact of environmental values on adoption intentions. Conversely, no mediation effects were observed in the drought model. Financial incentives, past conservation behaviour, conservation or land management network membership, and land characteristics did not significantly predict conservation covenant adoption intentions. Drawing from these findings, integrating landholder perceptions and experiences of extreme weather events into the design of private land conservation policies and programs is likely to improve the long-term resilience of private land conservation initiatives.

There is a global imperative to upscale restoration in line with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. Upscaling of marine and coastal restoration is hindered by legal and governance barriers. Identifying both the types of barriers and potential solutions from global ‘bright spots’ is a first step toward implementing legal and governance frameworks to facilitate upscaling of marine and coastal restoration. Here we identify five types of barriers including (a) lack of fit-for-purpose permitting frameworks, (b) tenure issues, (c) concerns regarding risk and liability, (d) a lack of overarching targets for restoration, and (e) uncoordinated governance frameworks. For each barrier, we conduct a broad analysis of legal and governance solutions from across the world. Our analysis provides a guide for future research and law and governance reform.

Target 3 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework commits nations to protecting and conserving at least 30% of the world’s terrestrial and inland water areas and coastal and marine areas by 2030 (30 × 30). There can be significant overlap with Indigenous and traditional territories (ITTs) and protected areas. We explore if and/or how ITTs are currently recognized and reported as contributors to national protection targets by analyzing whether these territories are counted as standalone conservation areas, integrated into government-led protected and conserved area networks or systems, or neither, in 18 countries. Our analysis reveals critical linkages between tenure regimes, ITTs and their recognition in reporting to global area-based conservation databases. Legal recognition of tenure rights, particularly ownership and stewardship rights, emerged as the strongest predictor of whether ITTs are formally being accounted for in these databases. Our findings also reveal that the contribution of ITTs to national protection targets not only depend on tenure type but also on governance rights, despite the way it is reported. We categorize systemic barriers and opportunities that have implications for the contribution of ITTs to 30 × 30 goals.

Abstract Vocalisations of owlet‐nightjars Aegotheles sp. are poorly known, with the exception of the Australian Owlet‐nightjar A. cristatus. Among the vocalisations for the Australian Owlet‐nightjar, hissing has been described as part of threat display in three first‐hand early published reports (between 1848 and 1934). However, no reports of this behaviour have been published since 1934, despite a number of field studies on the breeding biology of the species, potentially casting doubt on the veracity of earlier reports. Here I describe an instance of hissing as part of a threat display (which also included flattening its body, with head up, swaying side to side and gape wide open) of an Australian Owlet‐nightjar cornered in a nest box. I compare my observations to the few published occurrences, pose questions as to the circumstances and conditions for this behaviour, review vocalisations of other owlet‐nightjar species and instances of hissing in Caprimulgiformes.

The concept of 'long-term' is a key part of the definitions of both protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs). Draft principles for OECMs in Australia developed by the Australian Government propose a minimum period for OECMs of 25 years, where a landholder is not able to commit to in-perpetuity conservation. The proposal suggests this is consistent with IUCN Guidelines for Privately Protected Areas. As authors of the Guidelines for Privately Protected Areas we contend however that Australia's proposed OECM guideline suggesting 25 years of "intention" to deliver biodiversity outcomes is 'long-term' is not supported by IUCN guidelines. Furthermore for protected areas, Australia has a long-established definition of 'long-term' - specifically a minimum timeframe of 99 years is required if permanent protection is not possible - embedded in both national policy and legal agreements. As national governments rapidly seek to define OECMs in response to the raised ambitions of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, there will be increasing interest in what counts towards Target 3. Ultimately, more land managed for conservation is good and all forms of area-based conservation should be encouraged. However, not all forms of area-based conservation qualify for inclusion in Target 3. Long-term intent and outcomes are fundamental, as outlined in the definitions of protected areas and OECMs.

Shellfish reef ecosystems in Australia have been greatly depleted. Building on earlier trials, a continent-scale restoration initiative was underway by 2019 to restore 30% of their former distribution. Integral elements of building and progressing this ecoscape-scale restoration program are outlined and challenges discussed. Documenting pathways and challenges to large-scale restoration informs global commitments to see 30% of degraded ecosystems under effective restoration by 2030.

Conservation covenants are an important legal tool for enabling private land conservation, whose significance to policymakers has recently grown in light of new global commitments to expand areas of land and water protected and restored. Covenants’ traditional focus on conservation of existing natural values rather than restoration of degraded land or active management of environments impacted by climate change pose significant challenges to the flexibility and efficacy of this legal instrument. In Australia, recent national legal reforms to incentivise private land conservation, notably the new Nature Repair Act 2023, will need to consider how it can align with conservation covenanted lands that are regulated by different laws with different criteria and goals. Here we identify some pathways for enabling conservation covenants to play an expanded role in the context of ecosystem restoration and climate adaptation.

Other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) have been a feature of global biodiversity targets since 2010 (Aichi Targets, Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework), although the concept has only relatively recently been formally defined. Although uptake has been limited to date, there is much interest in identifying OECMs to contribute to the target of protecting at least 30% of terrestrial, freshwater and ocean areas by 2030, in conjunction with protected areas. Australia has a long history of protected area development across public, private and Indigenous lands, but consideration of OECMs in policy has recently begun in that country. We review principles proposed by the Australian Government for OECMs in Australia and highlight where these deviate from global guidance or established Australian area-based policy. We examined various land use categories and conservation mechanisms to determine the likelihood of these categories/mechanisms meeting the OECM definition, with a particular focus on longevity of the mechanism to sustain biodiversity. We identified that the number of categories/mechanisms that would meet the OECM definition is relatively small. A number of potentially perverse outcomes in classifying an area as an OECM are highlighted in order to guide proactive policy and program design to prevent such outcomes occurring.

The important role of private land conservation, and particularly privately protected areas (PPAs), in contributing towards global conservation is increasingly recognised. With an increase in the extent of PPAs, under a variety of different legal regimes and governance types, comes an increasing number of ecological, social, governance and legal research questions. Research into various aspects of PPAs has been growing. In compiling the IUCN’s Guidelines for Privately Protected Areas, a range of research questions were posed. The IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas Specialist Group on Privately Protected Areas and Nature Stewardship subsequently sought to gain the views of researchers and practitioners involved in PPAs regarding what they considered to be priorities for research. Responses were higher on enabling factors and mechanisms specific to PPAs and somewhat fewer on ecological and social outcomes. These results can be used to guide future research efforts that will be most meaningful to improve PPA take up, effectiveness and longevity, noting there is a need for researchers, practitioners, landowners and managers, and policymakers to collectively set the research agenda.

Effective private land conservation strategies that consider both landholder preferences and future climatic conditions are critical for preserving biodiversity and ecosystem services. Yet, the interaction and relative importance of these factors for conservation planning performance is unknown. Here, we assess the importance of considering landholder preferences and climate change for prioritising locations for conservation tenders to recruit landholders for conservation covenants. To achieve this we develop a planning framework that accounts for the tender process to optimise investment across regions and apply it to koala-focused tenders in New South Wales (NSW), Australia, exploring four planning approaches that consider or are ignorant to landholder preferences and the tender process and/or climate change. We find that optimal investments depend more on landholder preferences than climate change, and when landholder preferences are ignored, there is little benefit in accounting for climate change. Our analysis reveals new insights into this important interaction.

In response to the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, Australia has committed to protecting 30 per cent of lands and oceans for nature conservation by 2030. Privately protected areas are vital to meeting this target and establishing an ecologically representative and well-connected National Reserve System on land in Australia. As a federated nation, most public and privately protected areas (especially conservation covenants) are established under state or territory (i.e. subnational) legislation, as opposed to national legislation. This paper conducts a review of changes in policy and practice for private land conservation in the state of New South Wales (NSW) that has led to a marked acceleration in the establishment of privately protected areas since 2017. The historical average rate at which privately protected areas were being established in NSW under various schemes prior to the changes in 2017 was about 50 agreements and 12,000 hectares per annum. The new Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016, the Biodiversity Conservation Trust of NSW (BCT), and increased NSW Government funding commenced in August 2017. Since then, the rate of establishment of privately protected areas has accelerated to more than 100 agreements and 45,000 hectares per annum. Not only has the rate of establishment more than tripled (by area) but many more privately protected areas are being established in higher priority bioregions, and the BCT is now able to provide better financial and technical support to privately protected areas, leading to better conservation outcomes overall. Key changes that have strengthened the framework for establishing and managing privately protected areas in NSW include a guide for strategic investment; institutional arrangements that foster effective governance, trust and transparency; substantive NSW Government funding; an accumulating endowment fund model; in-perpetuity payments; and faster and more targeted delivery mechanisms. The paper highlights features that could be adopted in other jurisdictions in Australia to support the vital role that privately protected areas must play in achieving commitments to nature conservation.