The world's multiple landscape crises have placed agroforestry among the cost-effective nature-based solutions with numerous ecological, social, and economic benefits. This study examined the farmer and land factors influencing the adoption of agroforestry practices in the Gambia's Central River Region. Stratified random sampling was used to collect primary data from 377 households using semi-structured questionnaires and farm-level walkabout observations. The study used purposive and snowball sampling methods to engage different key informants. The results indicated that the agroforestry adoption rate in the study area was 52.3 %. Significant differences between the means of agroforestry adopters and non-adopters were observed. Adopters held more land size 0.66ha vs. 0.55ha, owned more livelihood assets (private land and livestock), and had significantly more fenced lands. The binary regression model established that livelihood assets, land size, land fencing, and gender were positively associated with agroforestry adoption in the study area. Conclusively, land-related factors emerged as more predictable determinants of agroforestry adoption than farmer-related factors. Notably, age and education, though important socioeconomic attributes, remained relatively the same between adopters and non-adopters, and were not statistically significant. The study recommends cross-cutting farmer and land-related policies, as well as other interventions to boost agroforestry adoption. It further suggests a follow-up study to quantify the actual cost and benefits associated with agroforestry adoption in the area.

With the failure of centralized system of forest governance in the 1980’s, Participatory Forest Management (PFM) was presented as a panacea that could bring about proper management of forest resources while enhancing forest dwellers’ livelihood. Previous studies, however, have reported mixed results from PFM in Cameroun, and elite capture has been said to be a major contributor. Principal - Agent theory highlights the importance of the principal’s (community) capacity to keep the agents (leaders) accountable as the best approach for controlling elite capture and produce expected results. This study assesses level of leadership accountability in community forestry in Cameroon. Using cross sectional research design, data was collected through administration of semi structured questionnaire to 204 community forest (CF) members selected on basis of willingness and availability, 31 key informant interviews, and documents review. Results indicate a low level of downward accountability of CF leaders, due to inadequate capacity of community members to provide incentive to CF leaders for effective downward accountability. This poor downward accountability was further aggravated by the total exclusion of traditional authorities from CF legal arrangement. Hence, sustainable community forestry in Cameroon requires for forestry stakeholders and the government to make more effort in enhancing community capacity to demand for accountability by ensuring that all elements of accountability mechanism (answerability and enforcement) are effectively implemented. Government institutions have a key role to play in making sure community decisions against poor leadership is strengthened and enforced; therefore, the importance of synergy between community voice and public authority.

The African lion has been the target of community-based conservation interventions that aim to halt the unprecedented decline of this iconic species that supports a lucrative tourism industry. Lions frequently get into conflict with pastoralists due to livestock predation leading to retaliatory killing. Assessments of interventions have mainly been goal-oriented, neglecting governance and institutional processes which form key components of potential improvement. Using the policy arrangement approach (PAA) we analyzed the factors that constitute governance arrangements of lion conservation interventions in the Amboseli ecosystem and the statistical effect of these factors on perceptions of lion population trends. We used a mixed methods design consisting of document analysis, key informant interviews, and household surveys. The results indicate high levels of the three forms of congruence. Congruence was a positive predictor of perceptions of lion population trends. In addition, financial and social capital, and rules monitoring were positive predictors. Compliance to the rules and natural capital were however negative predictors. This may indicate extrinsically motivated compliance triggered by both financial incentives including compensation and law enforcement. This implies that the current solutions fail to fully address poverty, an underlying cause of conflict. Consequently, a precarious state of congruence or stability exists, which may be lost at any particular time particularly if the heavily donor-dependent incentive and security programs are removed. The involvement of the tourism industry investors in policy development and implementation would be a good starting point in providing a more stable capital investment in the goals of conservation and development.

Global wood supply is faced with an annual escalating scarcity threat by population growth and increased wood demand. Natural forests, a chief source of wood, are under pressure from massive deforestation and degradation, whereas plantation forests are faced with challenges of land tenure and competition from other land uses. This systematic review aimed to point out the contribution of on-farm trees to global wood supply and tropical forest conservation. The study adopted the Sample-Phenomenon of Interest-Design-Evaluation-Research type framework to identify relevant literature. Both grey and peer-reviewed publications were considered. Of the 3800 publications identified, 42 substantially met the inclusion criteria and were selected for data extraction. A huge imbalance was evident in the wood supply and demand that forest production could not satisfy alone. On-farm trees were observed to be a significant alternative source of wood supply in South Africa, India, and Kenya, supplying 27, 36, and 70 per cent of total apparent consumption, respectively. Where importation reliance was low and a low forest production rate, on-farm trees contributed more than 50% of the total apparent consumption. China had a high reliance on importation. On-farm trees contributed at least a supply of 8% of total apparent consumption. On-farm trees were the chief source of wood fuel. On-farm trees contribute substantially to the supply chain of industrial roundwood, woodfuel, and sawn wood, reducing the need to infiltrate the forests. Where the full potential of on-farm trees is inadequately exploited, on-farm trees can sustainably contribute to the wood supply chain and save tropical forests

The constitution of Kenya 2010 placed the supply of water and services related to sanitation as a devolved function of County Governments. The clear delineation of roles between the County and National Governments have not significantly improved access to potable and clean water to households. Thirty-six percent of Kenya’s population in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASAL) still have to walk many kilometers in search for water for animal and human utilization There has been introduction of new rainwater harvesting technologies (RHT) that can alleviate the water scarcity, however little progress has been made on improvement of access to clean water in ASAL areas. There is, therefore, need to investigate the initiatives by the County Government of Machakos to integrate and implement water harvesting technologies in its development programs, planning and budgeting among households. Structured questionnaires were utilized to fetch primary data on integration and implementation of rainwater harvesting technologies which were then analyzed. Data was presented using tables, Charts and bar graphs to provide clarity of the findings. Calculation of arithmetic mean, standard deviation, Analysis of variance and regression analysis was done in order to deduce clear understanding of the findings. Documentary evidence was used to establish the programs and initiatives put in place by the County Government. The findings suggested that the County Government had put in place mechanisms to integrate RHTs in its development agenda however, the cost remained the biggest impediment to integration. A regression analysis showed that the Integration of RHT had a positive and significant effect on household livelihoods (β= 0.755, t=22.351, p=0.000<0.05). The study recommends that the County Government of Machakos develop programs to support integration of RHTs including providing subsidies, training, engaging development partners to finance rainwater harvesting and providing technical support.

The African lion population has declined by 43%, and is estimated to occupy about 25% of the historical range. Retaliatory killing due to livestock predation is a major contributory factor. The problem is acute in the human-populated areas of Southern Kenya. Conservation interventions have therefore been introduced. Evaluation of interventions often focus on human agency. However, non-humans including animals and devices influence conservation goals and outcomes. Using the Actor-Network Theory we trace the development of the complex relations that underpin lion conservation. Data was generated using key informant interviews, field observation, and literature review. Results show that lions represent a heterogeneous entity with individual identities that get embedded in relations that are in themselves a multiple apparent in the realities of actors. The relational agency is realized in the motion of a network formed of lions, humans, policy documents, dollars, collars, spears, and poison. Although Conservation Organizations establish themselves as the representative of this network that realizes a decline in lion killing, power is seen to be associative. Evaluating the agency inherent within the network bonds is necessary to reinforce those with positive agency and break the smaller networks or tame the agency that is likely to destabilize the network. The context of place through which these more-than-human relations are created is important in shaping the way forward.

Nationally determined contributions (NDCs) have emerged as the main tool for defining, communicating, and potentially reporting contributions of “parties” to the Paris Agreement on climate change. Agroforestry has been identified as a key part of most developing country NDCs; hence, it is a potentially important contributor to global climate objectives. This chapter explores the degree to which agroforestry is represented in current NDC ambitions, how its application is envisaged, and how its contribution could be enhanced. Agroforestry is one of the land uses with immense potential to fulfill commitments set out in NDCs and reduce emissions from agriculture; estimates of its potential to sequester vary widely, between 1.1 and 34.2 Pg C globally. Over 85% of the 22 NDCs assessed mentioned agroforestry as a strategy for achieving unconditional NDC commitments. By converting 25% of deforested areas to agroforestry, about 80% of the non-Annex I countries could achieve their unconditional commitments. The widespread use of agroforestry (about one billion hectares) and its familiarity among smallholder farmers and local practitioners makes it a potential low-hanging fruit for achieving NDC commitments, emission reduction in agriculture, and resilience. However, there are financial, policy, and technology challenges that should be addressed, including land and tree tenure and carbon rights in some countries, the potential impacts of climate change on the growing niches of tree species, and limited sources of quality germplasm.

To better understand the impacts of climate variability, including spatiotemporal variations in mean rainfall, temperature, and other climatic elements, it is imperative to analyze the dynamics of these elements. Despite the high vulnerability of the Tharaka South Subcounty, Kenya, to the impacts of climate change and variability, no studies have analyzed the local climatic trends and variability to inform response strategies. In this study, we analyzed rainfall and temperature trends and variability in Tharaka South Subcounty using gridded rainfall and temperature data sourced from CHIRPS and CHIRTS. Variability analysis employed descriptive statistics, coefficients of variation, standardized anomalies, and the precipitation concentration index. Trends were analyzed using a Mann-Kendall test and Sen’s slope estimator. The study area is characterized by low rainfall that shows a decreasing trend. Local rainfall is generally marked by high and increasing variability, high and increasing concentration, and a high probability of extreme events. The area has also experienced increasingly severe and frequent droughts, with most years in the study period having below-average rainfall. Rainfall variability is thus characterized by a decrease in rainfall, high rainfall concentration, extreme rainfall events, and more frequent and severe droughts. Large-scale climate forcings also influence the local rainfall trends and variability. In addition, the study area has high temperatures that show an increasing trend, and the region experiences a fluctuating temperature regime. An increase in temperature is associated with a reduction in rainfall amount. Moreover, the area is marked by spatial variability of rainfall and temperature, both with positive and negative spatial trends. The findings of this study will improve understanding of climatic trends and variability, leading to a better understanding of their impacts and informing the development of effective response strategies in the study area.

Rainwater harvesting technology is among the oldest methods of fetching water among households. The demand for water use has grown globally outpacing population growth, and increasingly, many regions are currently reaching levels which water services are unsustainable, especially in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASAL) regions. Inadequate water for domestic and agricultural use has had negative impacts on households in ASAL areas. There has been however introduction of rainwater harvesting technologies that seeks to solve the effects of water scarcity in these areas. Adoption of these technologies depend on factors that hinder/encourage households to adopt them. Matungulu Sub-County is such area that requires adoption of these technologies. Focus group discussions, interviews with key informants, and structured questionnaires were used to collect data. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used in data analysis. This involved calculation of arithmetic mean, standard deviation, percentages, frequencies and Analysis of Variance. The study identified 5 rainwater harvesting methods; Surface rainwater harvesting, Rooftop rainwater harvesting, Catchments, First flush and Filter. Findings indicated that overall, a composite mean of 4.04 and a standard deviation of 0.699 of the respondents agreed that incentives from the county government significantly promoted water-harvesting technologies. This was confirmed by a positively strong and significant correlation between integration of Rainwater Harvesting Technologies in the county development agenda. Results of this survey indicate that mostly household heads finance rainwater technologies and County Government initiatives have not been adequately felt. The study findings indicate that the major barriers to adopting rainwater technologies are costs and a lack of expertise on the adoption of these technologies. To ensure the sustainability of rainwater harvesting technologies, the study recommends the development of clear monitoring systems on water collection in the County. Additionally, there is a need to strengthen funding and sensitization on the best technologies to enhance water harvesting.

Climate variability is variation of climate elements from the longterm mean state on all spatiotemporal scales. Climate variability affects microfinance institutions directly and indirectly through physical and transition risks. However, no studies have analyzed the effects of climate variability in relation to informal microfinance institutions. The study, therefore, aimed to analyze the effects of climate variability in relation to informal microfinance institutions. It used a descriptive study design and multi-stage sampling design. Data was analyzed using thematic analysis, descriptive analysis, and Kendall’s tau-b correlation analysis. The study found a positive trend in climate variability (τb = 0.174, α>0.05). Local people are highly vulnerable to climate variability as confirmed by 98.7% of the respondents who observed that climate variability affects their livelihoods. This vulnerability stems from the effect of climate variability on access to capital assets and livelihood strategies. Vulnerability to climate variability has a significant negative effect on loan repayment performance, loan access and sustainability, and hence on informal microfinance performance (τb = - 0.109**, P<0.01). Nevertheless, climate variability increases participation in informal microfinance institutions as shown by the positive relationship with the number of people who joined informal microfinance institutions (τb = 0.239**, P<0.01) and the number formed per year (τb = 0.137, P<0.01) from 1981 to 2018. This is because informal microfinance institutions help vulnerable households in building resilience to climate variability as observed by 80.8% of the respondents.. The characteristics of informal microfinance institutions have positive or negative relationships with vulnerability to climate variability. These relationships are and could be further leveraged upon to address effects of climate variability on informal microfinance institutions. Detailed contextual analysis of informal microfinance institutions in the nexus of climate variability is thus imperative to inform actions aimed at cushioning the groups and their members against the impacts.

Better utilization of rainfall through rainwater harvesting can greatly increase agricultural productivity, improve food security and alleviate poverty. Water is the main limiting resource for crop production in arid sub-Saharan Africa. The biggest challenge currently is growing water shortage and dwindling rivers. This has impacted the livelihoods of rural population in arid and semi-arid counties. The introduction of novel rain-water harvesting (RWH) is, however, seeking to mitigate the effects of perennial droughts in arid areas. Successful adoption of such technologies has the potential to alleviate water problems faced by rural households. In Kenya, very little research has been conducted about adoption of water harvesting technologies and their role in curbing water shortages. Therefore, there was a need to interrogate the extent to which adoption of water harvesting technologies has impacted households in Matungulu Sub-County. Focus group discussions, interview with key informants, and structured questionnaires were used to collect data for the study which were then analyzed using SPSS version 22 software. The findings indicated that overall, a composite mean of 4.04 and a standard deviation of 0.699 of the respondents agreed that incentives from the county government significantly promoted water harvesting technologies. This was confirmed by a positively strong and significant correlation between the integration of RHT in the county development agenda and the impact on household livelihoods. A further regression analysis indicated that Integration of RHT had a positive and significant influence on household livelihoods (β= 0.755, t=22.351, p=0.000<0.05). Results of this survey indicate that rainwater technologies are financed mostly by household heads and county government initiatives have not been adequately felt. There is a strong indication from the study that water harvesting technologies had a statistically significant influence on the impact on household livelihoods. To ensure sustainability of rainwater harvesting technologies, the study recommends that Machakos

Informal microfinance is the delivery of financial services mainly to low income people outside the regulation of the monetary authority. Despite their importance in development, no studies have undertaken a detailed analysis of structures and performance in informal microfinance institutions. This study aims to analyze structures and performance in informal microfinance institutions in Tharaka South Sub County. It uses descriptive study design and multi stage sampling design. Data analysis was done using thematic, descriptive and Kendall’s tau-b correlation analysis. An informal microfinance performance index was developed using inductive and hierarchical approaches. The study found the informal microfinance institutions are marked by high performance which is determined by their structures. Moreover, the study deduced that informal microfinance is a key policy strategy for poverty alleviation, financial inclusion, gender equity and resilience building since participants mainly include women and other vulnerable groups. Keywords: Capital, Livelihoods, Informal, Microfinance, Performance, social

Key Messages Revitalize the sisal and cotton industry to provide eco- friendly alternatives and create employment. NEMA should provide sound waste management strategies that promote a circular model of economy which encourages waste recovery. Reduction/removal of taxes on all imports that are aimed at providing healthy and eco- friendly alternatives to the plastics. Integrate public awareness and sensitization sustainable and responsibly consumption through environmental education in national and county development plans.

Plastic bags are non-biodegradable materials and consequently harmful to the environment. In spite of that, plastic is light and easy to make hence the increased production across the globe. This study was conducted in the aftermaths of Kenya’s ban on plastic bags with the intention of analyzing how traders have complied with the ban. Compliance levels were reported to be lower in Kibera (30%) compared to Karen (60%). The banned plastic carrier bags were still in circulation and manufacturers blamed poor enforcement from the government and porous borders. Purportedly, traders were not given time to prepare and comply neither were they adequately consulted. The low compliance levels were attributed to limited public participation of the traders hence the need to adopt a circular economy model where every item is of value and consumers are able to reduce, recycle, reuse and relevant government agencies able to provide ecofriendly and affordable alternatives.

Biomass fuels dominate the household energy mix in sub-Saharan Africa. Much of it is used inefficiently in poorly ventilated kitchens resulting in indoor air pollution and consumption of large amounts of wood fuel. Micro-gasification cookstoves can improve fuel use efficiency and reduce indoor air pollution while producing char as a by-product. This study monitored real-time concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5), and amount of firewood used when households were cooking dinner. Twenty-five households used the gasifier cookstove to cook and five repeated the same test with three-stone open fire on a different date. With the gasifier, the average corresponding dinner time CO, CO2, and PM2.5 concentrations were reduced by 57%, 41%, and 79% respectively compared to three-stone open fire. The gasifier had average biomass-to-char conversion efficiency of 16.6%. If the produced char is used as fuel, households could save 32% of fuel compared to use of three-stone open fire and 18% when char is used as biochar, for instance. Adoption of the gasifier can help to reduce the need for firewood collection, hence reducing impacts on the environment while saving on the amount of time and money spent on cooking fuel.

Fuel wood is the main source of cooking and heating energy in developing countries. However, it is combusted in inefficient cookstoves, leading to more fuel use and human health problems resulting from exposure to smoke. Thus new, efficient cooking systems that can address some of these problems are required. This study examined gasifier cookstove use in Kwale County, Kenya, and factors influencing adoption. Gasifier stoves were issued for free to 50 households, which were surveyed after 2–3months of use. The results showed that the stove was used by 96% of the households at varying frequencies, 40% of them used it almost every day with 4% switching to only using the new stove. All the users appreciated it because it saved fuel, produced less smoke, and produced charcoal to use for either cooking or soil amendment. Compared with the traditional three-stone open fire, the gasifier stove was reported to be easier to clean (98% of respondents), easier to adjust the heat (88%), easier to handle (58%), caused less exposure to heat (96%) and was cleaner for pots and the kitchen (98%). Another reported benefit of the gasifier stove was that it needed no tending (i.e., adjusting wood and blowing to keep the flames burning). The gasifier stove was mainly used to cook foods that required a short cooking time and many preferred to use it to cook dinner. However, the households encountered some challenges with using the gasifier stoves. For example, fuel preparation, reloading, and lighting were reported as challenges by 42%, 77% and 19%, respectively, of the 83% of households who reported challenges. These challenges could be overcome by improving stove design and by devising innovative ways of cutting fuel into small pieces.

A majority of households in developing countries use biomass energy for cooking and heating due to its affordability and accessibility. However, unsustainable biomass use leads to deforestation, environmental degradation and climate change. The pollution from open burning of biomass is a major health concern especially for women and children as they spend a lot of time in the kitchen. Biochar-producing gasifier cookstoves offer an opportunity to address many of these problems, while also producing biochar, which can be used as a soil amendment. A study was carried out in order to investigate factors influencing the adoption of these cookstoves in three sites in Kenya (Kwale, Embu and Siaya). After an introductory training, 150 households received cookstoves and were asked to use them to produce biochar for upcoming field experiments. User experiences were collected throughsurveys after 2-3 months and about 2 years, and at workshops. The main benefits of the cookstove identified by the users were fuel saving with significant impacts on household economies, reduced smoke and production of biochar for either cooking or soil amendment. Challenges were related to lighting, a need to refill the fuel canister, fuel preparation and different suitability for different typesof meals and meal sizes. The gasifier use frequency and biochar production rates differed between the sites, which had different climate, socio-economic conditions and fuel accessibility. The results will be of relevance for inclusion of user participation in cookstove designing and performance assessment as well as for stakeholders involved in marketing. They can also give guidance on therelevance of gasifier cookstoves for production of biochar for use on farms. (Less)

A majority of people in developing countries use biomass energy for cooking and heating due to its affordability, accessibility and convenience. However, unsustainable biomass use leads to forest degradation and climate change. Therefore, this study was carried out in Kwale County, Kenya, on the use of a biochar-producing gasifier cook stove and implications of its uptake on livelihoods and the environment. Fifty households were trained and issued with a gasifier for free. After 2–3 months of gasifier use, a survey was conducted to investigate the implications of its uptake. The direct impacts included reduced fuel consumption by 38%, reduced time spent in firewood collection, reduced expenditure on cooking fuel, diversification of cooking fuels, improved kitchen conditions and reduced time spent on cooking. The potential benefits included income generation, increased food production, reduced impacts on environment and climate change and reduced health problems. Improved biomass cook stoves can alleviate problems with current cooking methods, which include inefficient fuel use, health issues caused by smoke, and environmental problems. These benefits could contribute to development through alleviating poverty and hunger, promoting gender equality, enhancing good health and sustainable ecosystems and mitigating climate change. The study recommends the promotion of cleaner cooking stoves, particularly gasifiers, among households in rural areas while paying attention to user needs and preferences.

The twin goals of participatory forest management as adopted by many developing countries are to foster sustainable forest management and to reduce poverty. In Kenya, various legal and policy reforms have been introduced and attempts have been made to devolve use and forest management rights to local communities. It remains debatable whether communitiesrsquo participation has yielded the intended improvements in livelihood and good governance. It would be no exaggeration to say that the study of forests and rural community livelihoods has been central to the development of scholarship on impacts of PFM on livelihoods. Equally certainly, the interest in forests has generated a need to consider the same in the light of urban forestry. This studynbsp based on participatory forest management program (PFM) in Ngongrsquo Road forest in Nairobi City County and Kiptuget in Baringo County Kenya was conducted with the aims of establishing factors motivating membersrsquo participation and identifying and describing the conservation and income generating activities undertaken and their effects on members livelihoods.nbsp Quantitative and qualitative data was collected through questionnaires, interview of key informants, focus group discussions and literature reviews. The results show that in both NRFA and KICOFA, factors related to perceived benefits in terms of economic, social, factors, forest products and services, appreciation of nature and conservation were motivations for participation. Further, the study realized that despite the fact that both CFAs had an array of IGAs aimed at supplementing their livelihoods and easing pressure on the forest, NRFA had made more significant progress in terms of realizing these activities as compared to KICOFA.nbsp It was further realized that though there was a general similar trend in terms of average earning from engaging in PFM, the study noted that in both KICOFA and NRFA, averagely 50% of the members were satisfied with the benefits. It was further observed that majority of members both in KICOFA and NRFA indicated that PFM has had large positive impact on their livelihood and thus their household were in a better position that before joining the CFA.nbsp

Climate variability is variation of climate elements from thelongterm mean state. Climate variability may result from natural internal processes within the climate system or from natural or anthropogenic external forces. Kenya’s climate system is marked by spatial variations between its regions and temporal variation across all timescales. The nature of climate variability therefore differs along and across different spatial and temporal contexts.Climate variability in the context of Tharaka South Subcounty has however not been studied in detail to enable clear understanding of past and currently prevailing climatic status and trends. No studies have also been done to analyze household’s resilience to climate variability in Tharaka South Subcountydespite the fact that climate variability resilience building is site specific. This therefore called for a detailed study aimed at analyzing climate variability in the context of Tharaka South Subcounty. This study is based on the sustainable livelihoods framework and uses a descriptive study design. It employed multi stage sampling design with data being collected from primary and secondary sources. Analysis was done using thematic analysis, descriptive analysis and inferential statistical methods including coefficient of variation and Kendall’s tau-b. Household’s resilience to climate variability was calculated using a resilience composite index developed using inductive and hierarchical approaches. The study found out that the local climate is becoming increasingly variable with positive trends in climate variability along the years being observed. Local climatic patterns are becoming more erratic and unpredictable as confirmed by local people’s perceptions. Climate variability has negative impacts on local people’s livelihoods butthey are undertaking various responses to build their resilience. Local households were however observed to have very low resilience to climate variability as determined using the developed resilience index.