Czech and Slovak thermal analysis, although sporadically cited, had a significant influence on the development of the field. Already in history, for example, in the seventeenth century, Marcus Marci contributed to the analysis of spectral colors or Jan Comenius brought his views on heat introducing the caloric. In modern times, for example, Josef Matějka undertook an avant-garde analysis of kaolin by studying its behavior during thermal decomposition. Rudolf Barta showed himself to be an architect of modern development when, as early as 1955, he advocated for regular conferences on thermal analysis and founded the journal Silikáty publishing related innovations. A renaissance researcher was Vladimír Šatava, who contributed to the instrumental and theoretical development of the field, especially non-isothermal kinetics and hydrothermal analysis. Ivo Proks advanced the development of modulated methods with his periodic method and became a promoter of historical thermodynamics. Viktor Jesenák became an advocate of a new description of periodicity in the solid phase. Pavel Holba introduced the description of the equilibrium background of phase transformations and took care of the new portrayal of non-stoichiometry. Vladimír Balek became the father of an original method of emanation thermal analysis as a structural probe. A number of other authors were behind the publication of important books and papers showing the integrated involvement of domestic science.

No one has yet investigated the information reach and influence of thermal analysis. Even so the heat and entropy are bound closely. The very problem of the term entropy is that it was defined specifically within the classical, equilibrium Thermodynamics like Clausius entropy, while its meaning is more general. It is usable in all areas of physics, in the communication theory and technology, and also, in social sciences, just as an universal quantitative model. The bridge to this wider world is in Boltzmann’s statistical point of view used in the Shannon’s information point of view. The difference is that the Shannon entropy is defined more generally, both for the uniform and for the not uniform probability distributions. But with renormalization and with the Boltzmann constant we can speak, using the Clausius entropy, about a certain thermodynamic system considered as a heat model of the area of our wider interests. So we will to deal with the heat and its entropy embodied to a wider consideration. In addition to the standard physical meaning, another thermodynamic realization in the form of a message is derived from Shannon’s information theory, where the sample carries a measure of Shannon’s information given by its structure or internal organization. This is also a contribution to improving the approach to thinking about the importance of observation and measurement, reflecting at the same time the costs and influence of the measurement itself and its organization on the measured object or, on its environment or, even on the environment of the measuring itself generally. Statistical sorting also carries with it the internal movement of individual elementary particles, the value of which indicates the resulting state of heat transfer and dissipation to and from the system providing a state of called equilibrium. It is statistically described by a weighted quantity called temperature, the changes of which via momentum alteration satisfy Newton’s laws of inertia allowing enumeration of the related heat information processing. The terminology used is still non-institutional.

Conceptual structure of contemporary thermal physics is by no means simple, understandable and free of contradictions or ambiguities. As many students claim, it is a rather complicated doctrine which is far from to be easy comprehensible (Meltzer in Am J Phys 72:1432–1446, 2004). Therefore, in this polemic contribution, originally the summer school lecture, we will address some lesser-known points, which are likely responsible for such a situation. We start with Black’s path breaking discovery of two aspects of heat, namely the “matter of heat” and the “intensity of heat,” which were later identified with the quantities known as entropy (S) and temperature (T). It can be shown that the product of these two quantities can enter the energy balance equation, which is apt to interconnect various parts of physics. The genesis of these key concepts was, however, not straightforward. An original hypothetical model of heat, a subtle imponderable fluid, caloric (ς), was abandoned after the non-critical acceptance of the “milestone of thermodynamics,” Mayer–Joule’s postulate claiming the equivalence of heat and work. Heat then became a pure energy without any material carrier, but with seriously limited transformation abilities. In addition, the situation is also complicated by the very fact that the definition of Kelvin absolute thermodynamic temperature scale (T) is fully based on the caloric theory. Partial reconciliation brought about only introduction of Clausius’ entropy. This, however, was afterward recognized to be practically identical with the Carnot’s caloric. Furthermore, by analogy identification of phenomenological variables S and T with statistical parameters appearing in the kinetic theory has not withstand extension to the domain of special relativity. Thus, the full equivalence between thermodynamics and statistical physics is not feasible. Another realm of problems is generated by the recent tendency in metrology to define units by means of defining constants with fixed numerical values instead of materialized étalons. In case of thermal physics, one can be skeptic about such an approach, because the universal constancy of entropy and its unit, Boltzmann constant k = 1.380649 × .10−23 J K-1, are only unjustified assumptions, which can be a potential source of future difficulties.

The review summarizes the current state, outlook and development of the field of thermal analysis, emphasizing the study of thermal effects as the basis of all other methodologies. Heat and its understanding intertwines throughout the entire civilization from the Greek philosophers through the middle ages to today’s advanced technological era. The foundations of the field of thermal analysis, where heat acts as its own agent, date back to the nineteenth century, and the calorimetric evaluation of heat fluxes became the basis. It views the processes of calibration and rectification specifies the iso- and noniso- degrees of transformation, explains the role of the equilibrium background, which is especially necessary in kinetics. It introduces a new concept of thermodynamics with regard to the constancy of first derivatives and discusses the role of standard temperature and its non-equilibrium variant—tempericity. It describes the constrained states of glasses and assesses the role of dimensions in material science. Finally yet importantly, it deals with the influence of thermoanalytical journals, their role in presenting unusual results, and discusses the role of the dissident science. It also describes the level and influence of adequate books and finally describes discussions and perspectives, i.e. where to look better interpretation for and what is the influence of current over-sophisticated devices.

The development of new materials called geopolymers is described, which at the turn of the nineties brought a new state of the art in material design through the so-called wet process resulting in a specific amorphous state. The classical configuration of glasses prepared by quenching is used for a joint appraisal and judgment. We can use the comparison and description of the known form of organic polymers with the so-called mers-structure. The formation involves a sol–gel polycondensation chemical reaction also known in the case of organic polymers. The formation is described using aluminosilicate oxide in IV-fold coordination with alkaline polysilicates to form polymeric Si–O–Al chains through amorphous to semi- and hypo-crystalline three-dimensional silico-aluminate structures. The revision of structural units and their interconnection is evaluated, and it turns out that the common factor of the multiparty description is the existence of bridging and non-bridging oxygen. The review provides a detailed overview of opinion while reminding that the historical origin of the field falls within the purview of the JTAC journal.

The general concept of temperature is thermodynamically defined in equilibrium somehow predictable even for non-equilibrium; however, it presents some still controversial aspects, as has been shown in a number of studies and reviews that have been published so far. Equilibrium concepts are often extrapolated to apply in micro-localized equilibrium and then appended to non-equilibrium in its entirety, which helps to define out-of-equilibrium temperature on both the macroscopic and microscopic bases. Unfortunately, these theoretical analyses do not provide any guidance on how to assess and understand temperature in practical measurements, such as for conventional thermal analysis. Insufficient use of alternative thermodynamic attitudes is evident especially in the field of thermophysical studies, which do not use static measurements, because they usually involve heating from an external source, i. e., the effect of thermal dynamics on the laboratory sample. This paper presents the applied nonequilibrium thermodynamic concept, historically known as thermotics. This approach takes into account the existence of gradients and heat fluxes, which it assesses from the point of view of the average user, and considers additional influences, going beyond the description of thermodynamics in traditional textbooks. The goal is to extend their validity, even to the state of constant first-time derivatives. At the same time, it points to changes in the temperature due to thermal inertia, which has long been ignored, suggesting that the heat spreads immediately. Moreover, special techniques enabling measurements during its extreme changes probably then require an alternative concept for temperature (tempericity). This opinion paper may provide stimuli for further discussion with regard to the practice of measurements done in the customary nonisothermal mode.

The main objective of this review is to facilitate a deeper understanding of thermal inertia principles and to analyze its impacts on the evaluation of reaction kinetics. At first, the physical meaning of thermal inertia is explained and discussed, and its significance is documented on numerous practical examples. An overview of methods dealing with thermal inertia by means of quantification and elimination of its effects is presented afterwards. The particular approaches are analyzed in detail and their advantages, disadvantages, limitations, and a potential field of applications are outlined. The comprehensive analysis of thermal-inertia related problems shows it as an omnipresent factor with an indisputable impact on thermoanalytical results, the reaction kinetics in particular. In this light, the fundamental question on the thermal inertia neglecting issue should be revised, since it is no longer actual to ask “if”, but definitely only “when” can it be neglected.

The development of instrumentation has allowed thermal analysis to become a widely used method not only in calorimetry but also in the field of non-isothermal kinetics that, however, provides a simplified philosophy of measurements. From the beginning, a methodology is used describing the course of reaction in a simplified temperature regime measured in an inert sample. In a most common case of DTA, the degree of reaction is subtracted from the partial areas of the as-cast peak in the unified mode of the peak linear background. Usually, the effect of thermal inertia, resulting from the reality of heat transfer and changing the peak background to a non-linear s-shaped form, is not incorporated. Therefore, the question of whether or not to include this effect of thermal inertia has become a current underlying problem of thermo-analytical kinetics. The analysis of the rectangular input heat pulses and their DTA responding fundamentally point to the need to include it thus becoming essential and not negligible. In the case of parallel evaluations, the effect of inertia can be partially compensated for each other such as in the Kissinger evaluation method. The study presents a broad overview of the thermo-analytical methodology used and points to the often-neglected literature. However, standard mainstream kinetics procedures need be fixed, and an improved solution found to account for the effect of heat transfer and dissipation, which is becoming the focus of thermal analysis methods of future and also the intention of this review.

A basic chapter necessary for understanding the real thermodynamics of thermal processes is screening the validity of thermodynamic laws even if ensuring the effect of constant temperature changes due to constant heating. First, the Fourier heat transfer and the laws of Fick and Ohm are repeated in the historical overview. The basics of phase transitions, their arrangement and the concept of extended and broaden transformations are shown. The kinetic degree of transformation and the related Holba-Sestak equation are described in detail. The interpretation of phase diagrams using a new kinetic approach is discussed in detail. Important so-called T-T-T and C-T diagrams are also shown and interpreted. The thermodynamic basis applied to the nonequilibrium glass transition is exposed in detail and the effect of the glass transition temperature is shown. Finally, some remarks on the effect of fluctuations are given, as well as some features of a rational approach.

The concept of this chapter seems to go beyond traditional thermodynamics. On the contrary, it turns out that the application of thermodynamic methods has an impact on social and economic events, including the subsequent impact of games. Efficiency and economic production are analysed in the same way as the generalised Carnot cycle in economics. Although the laws of thermodynamics remain in opposition to human feelings, both have their place of evaluation. Rules of conduct such as survival strategies and evolution are discussed. Openness, interface and useful work such as exergy are needed in ecosystems.

Historical notes and an introduction to bridging and non-bridging oxygen (NBO) are clarified. A number of volume considerations about ionic sites in silicate glasses are given. Geopolymers and their links to the state of classical glasses are described. Hypo-crystalline materials and their frameworks are introduced. A simple computational concept for NBO in silica glasses is shown. The properties and applications of bioactive materials are presented with respect to dental implantology.

This chapter provides an introduction to climatology from the point of view of thermal analysis and possible mutual similarities. In also provides a history of Earth's climate and atmosphere research and the role of thermodynamics. It examines the influence of sample position, for example, Earth, its geometric anomalies, orbit, and irregularities of solar emission. The Earth is examined as a sample of a black body, flow of heat, and entropy.The chapter also investigars atmospheric composition, greenhouse effect, and recent views on climate change. Will human beings survive?

Introduction and educational story of oxide superconductors with examples of special research, such as special thermoanalytical measurements applied to a nonstoichiometric example of a ceramic Y-Ba-Cu-O superconductor. Thermodynamic data for many of these compounds are tabulated here. Some historical roots derived from the studies of Korzhinsky and Holba are the basis for the origin and description of the general approach to questions of nonstoichiometry. The definition of partially open systems and the application of a special function called hyperfree energy is shown. By analogy with, for example isothermal stability, a new concept of plutability is derived. Practical applicability is demonstrated in the new Ca-Co-O system.

The chapter begins with an unusual but original list of theories and the researchers hidden behind them in an embedded retrospective historical view of the original development of non-isothermal kinetics, especially from the point of view of the author's own experience. The basis of its validity are the constitutive equations just applied in terms of non-isothermal chemical kinetics. The previously discussed but ill-defined kinetic concept in which the meaning of derivatives is abused is re-introduced. The basic aspects of kinetic evaluations under non-isothermal conditions are elaborated in detail. The methods of Integral and differential evaluation of kinetic data are also presented. Nonintegral power exponents, formal kinetic models and roles of accommodation functions are analyzed in detail, including the practicality and peculiarity of this non-isothermal approach. The optimal procedures for the kinetic evaluation of experimental data are presented especially in the relation of Málek and Koga studies. The kinetic compensation effect is also shown and elaborated.

This special chapter is inserted as a little-known example of a possible arrangement of innovative thermodynamics based on the historical notion of calories. As an introduction, a description of the widely mentioned fire as a production tool and its insubstantial disposition for subsequent caloric considerations is given. The following is also a description of classical thermodynamics existing in phenomenological theory and entropic analysis similar to heat, thus introducing caloric theory. The necessary basic relations of constitutive relations and basic laws of thermodynamics within caloric theory are presented. The solution and establishment of the caloric theory is presented with a subsequent analysis of the efficiency of heat engines within the dynamic form of the theory.

In the field of thermoanalytical kinetics, which is widely used, basic questions arise regarding a possible description of the effect of heat transfer and subsequent thermal inertia. Current practice still uses a simplified interpretation of directly measured data for an inert sample at a constant temperature rise to describe the studied reaction, which leads to a simplified reaction conversion ratio, which is further used for various mathematical processing. The analysis of the introduced rectangular heat pulses and their indication by DTA clearly shows that the effect of thermal inertia is fundamental and not negligible. This is, after all, known from calorimetry, where the integral constant of inertia has historically been used to calibrate the descending temperature, but it cannot generally be applied to the whole temperature process due to its nonlinearity. In the case of parallel processing, for example by gradually increasing the heating rate, the effect of thermal inertia can be partially compensated for each other which have yet to be confirmed. However, for the kinetic analysis of a single peak, it is necessary to adapt to the effect of the thermal delay due to thermal inertia, which, similarly to the measured enthalpy, is tied to the sample size. Of course, it will be up to the researcher to find a solution that also includes the effect of heat transfer and dissipation, which should become the main principle of thermoanalytical methods of the future, as shown by current examples combining thermal processes with their specific kinetics.

The introductory chapter describes everything needed for readers beginning to get acquainted with the procedures and results of thermal analysis, which includes research and description of thermal effects, environmental and dimensional analysis of scales, thermal measurement tools, methods of evaluation and organization of thermal methods grouping, temperature measurement and control, characterization and description of experimental curves, comments on the preparation and placement of thermoanalytical samples and finally a note on the peculiarities of other possible temperature modulations.