Police personnel wellbeing has been researched academically for several years, yet limited research has focused on specific roles such as detectives. This is despite a growing retention and recruitment crisis in policing, including in investigative roles. This shortage persists even as overall workforce numbers increase. Improving officers' mental health and wellbeing is critical for retention, efficiency and policing effectiveness. The present study is the first to examine organisational and operational stress among UK Senior Investigating Officers (SIOs) and psychological distress (anxiety and depression). A cross-sectional survey was completed by 275 SIOs, representing 27% of the national SIO workforce. Findings revealed high prevalence of mental health issues: 59 (21%) met the criteria for depression and 44 (16%) for anxiety. Organisational stress was consistently rated higher than operational stress across most groups. Regression analyses indicated that police stress was predicted by average weekly work hours, child homicide investigations, disaster investigations and personal trauma. Psychological distress was primarily predicted by organisational and operational stressors, accounting for 38% of variance, with operational stress being the strongest predictor. These findings underscore the urgent need for targeted interventions addressing organisational and operational stress to improve wellbeing and retention among SIOs.

The Family Liaison Officer (FLO) role within Policing is to support a victim’s family members during their most challenging time, whilst also playing a key part in the ongoing criminal investigation. Given the trauma FLOs witness while assisting families, it is surprising that the impact of this role has not been subject to much academic research to date. This paper aims to explore the effects of family liaison work on police officers in England and Wales who undertake this role. Using a cross-sectional survey, Secondary Traumatic Stress and wellbeing levels were measured in a sample of FLOs (N = 394). Alongside examining the impact of the role, this paper identifies and explores the influence of several potential ‘protective factors’ against the impact of negative events: Locus of Control (LoC) (Rotter, 1966) and resilience. Very high levels of secondary trauma were found in the FLOs sample, with the greatest predictor of poor wellbeing found to be the non-work-related effects of personal distress experienced in the past twelve months, resilience levels, and LoC measures. The implications of these findings are discussed in terms of improving police occupational health and for further academic research.

Disaster Victim Identification (DVI) is a process that follows Mass Fatality Incidents including earthquakes, tsunamis, and large-scale terrorist attacks. It comprises a team deployed to collect and identify victims and return physical remains to their families. Extant research on the wellbeing and resilience of those who work in this vital process is at best 'emergent' and at worst 'neglected'. This paper explores how DVI can negatively affect the wellbeing of those working within it, how they deal/cope with these effects, and how they build and maintain emotional, psychological, and physical resilience. An exploratory constructionist grounded theory approach was adopted to facilitate a deeper understanding of the experiences of those involved, comprising 25 semi-structured interviews conducted with individuals either working in DVI or who had recently retired. Participants performed a variety of different DVI roles and duties. A thematic analysis was conducted which resulted in six themes: the motivations for volunteering, personal rewards that working in DVI brings, the true nature of deployment, self-awareness about the effects of DVI on their own psychological, emotional, and physical wellbeing, and common coping strategies employed to deal with any negative impacts on personal wellbeing. The paper presents a proposed model for DVI wellbeing that highlights important risks and protections identified in the study for practitioners' wellbeing. It concludes with a discussion of the implications of the findings for DVI practice and wellbeing.

This cross-sectional study utilises an explanatory-sequential, mixed-methods design, using quantitative surveys ( N = 275) and semi-structured interviews ( N = 17) to explore the psychological impacts of investigation type on a sample of UK police senior investigating officers (SIOs). Prevalence rates of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (5.4%) and complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) (4.1%) are also established. Analyses demonstrate that organisational stress ( B = 1.15), experiencing trauma 6 to 12 months ago ( B = −1.72) and child homicide investigations ( B = 1.76) predict PTSD, whereas operational stress ( B = 1.82), experiencing trauma 6 to 12 months ago ( B = −1.45) and 10 to 20 years ago ( B = 3.92) predict CPTSD. Child homicide is the only investigation type to predict all three PTSD symptoms, while adult homicide predicts lower re-experiencing ( B = −1.50) and sense of threat ( B = −1.07). The qualitative analysis suggests that although SIOs may become more resilient to traumatic experiences through coping processes of avoidance and detachment, this career-long experience of trauma exposure leads to psychological vulnerability. Supporting the quantitative findings, increased PTSD resulting from child homicide investigations appears to be related to levels of personal resonance. Many SIOs that maintained it is not any particular type of investigation, however. It is thus argued that the relationship between child homicide and PTSD is influenced by Lazarus and Folkman's concept of ‘centrality’. The practical findings of this paper are discussed, and implications for police practice and supporting officer well-being moving forward are considered.

The COVID-19 pandemic presented unpresented challenges to societies and the way in which we live, everyday behaviours became prohibited and various parts of the economy were completely shut down in the United Kingdom. Such draconian and radical changes to everyday life are indeed important to study and the present paper captures a representative response of the compliance to social distancing measures implemented in the United Kingdom. This paper explores the effectiveness of the UK Government's messaging aimed at inducing conformity, whilst considering alternative experimental messages designed to influence conformity by targeting demographics using the principles of NUDGE theory (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008). An online cross-sectional survey was administered in May/June 2020 to 1028 residents of the UK. A cluster analysis was performed to identify different demographic profiles associated with rule breaking. The findings of the present paper outlined clearly that the UK public struggled to adhere to the social distancing rules implemented with relatively low rates of complete compliance and identified two groups of individuals who although only represent a small percentage of the sample (< 20%) were accountable for the majority of rule breaking behaviour. The findings provide an indication of which measures were viewed as more serious and as such less likely to broken, alongside which demographic groups were the least compliant. Regarding the Government's messaging used during the pandemic, this was demonstrated to be more effective than the hypothetical communications used in the present study. The present paper offers, important insights into specific aspects of non-conformity, including contact with the Police during this time. The present paper offers important learning lessons to improve adherence to social distancing in the future by providing a breakdown of the areas where social distancing is most likely to breached and an indication of who is likely to do this.

Purpose- Policing is a stressful occupation which increases the risk of experiencing poor mental health outcomes. The purpose of this study is to highlight the primary areas of focus in research to date, and propose future directions which could significantly enhance our understanding of how to protect the well-being of police officers and staff. Design/methodology/approach- In this narrative review, the authors draw on research from cognitive psychology to illustrate some of the possible mechanisms by which police stressors impact mental health. The authors also examine the potential role of emotion regulation in mitigating those harmful effects. Findings- An attentional bias for threatening/aversive stimuli represents an adaptive strategy that is conducive to avoiding harm. However, exposure to chronic or acute stress, as well as dispositional factors (e.g. trait anxiety), has the potential to disrupt the delicate balance that exists in the threat-monitoring system, leading to hyper-vigilance and increased vulnerability to mental health conditions such as PTSD. Conversely, certain emotion regulation strategies appear to modulate the allocation of attentional resources to threatening/aversive stimuli, reducing the extent to which they are subject to elaborative processing and enhancing subjective well-being. Practical implications- The authors illustrate how the application of cognitive-experimental methods could directly inform the development of strategies and interventions aimed promoting positive outcomes for mental health. Originality/value- Cognitive-experimental methods remain under-used in research on police stress and well-being. By drawing on research conducted with other populations, the authors provide novel suggestions for the application of these techniques to policing contexts.

Pen-pal programmes have long been recognised as an effective tool for developing new synergistic friendships. Many organisations and charities around the world utilise similar programmes involving volunteers writing to prisoners. Such a volunteering experience could be regarded as peculiar when taking into consideration the derogatory views that society holds on these individuals. The present study seeks to explore these volunteers' experience in becoming a pen-pal to a DRI and maintaining the correspondence. A survey was sent to 98 participants from the Sant'Egidio Community, of which 50 participations were included after applying the exclusion criteria. A Thematic Analysis, following a theoretical and semantic approach, generated six main themes from the data: an Emotional Journey, Evolving Friendship Faith, Criticising the Death Penalty, Difficulties, and a Mutually Beneficial Experience. Participants were overall grateful due to having gained a new perspective in life from this experience. To our knowledge, this area is extremely under-researched, and this study adds to knowledge and empirical findings related to this subject. Limitations and implications are discussed.

Although the use of 'nudges' to influence decision-making and behaviour continues to be widely adopted by social policymakers, such as encouraging increases in organ donations, it is yet to get a similar foothold in the thinking and practice of reducing crime and policing. This paper seeks to assess the utility of the Nudge approach for achieving a reduction in residential burglary in Durham, England, by testing its efficacy using a Randomised Control Trial.

Purpose The purpose of this study is to explore the review mechanisms’ efficacy from the perspective of cold case reviewers. Live homicide review mechanisms at the 7- and 28-day stage of an inquiry seek to prevent the case becoming cold (or unsolved) by ensuring lines of inquiry have been suitably identified and progressed. There is also a requirement to ensure the investigation was not swayed by faulty decision-making or cognitive biases. However, the use of the review processes in preventing unsolved cases is unclear, and not subject to much academic discussion. Design/methodology/approach This exploratory study explores the review functions through the lens of cold case detectives, currently reviewing unsolved cases to identify progression opportunities. The study uses data from a seven-month, non-participatory observation period with a two-force collaborative cold case unit and 13 semi-structured interviews with cold case review officers. The observations and interviews were simultaneously analysed adhering to an inductive approach to Thematic Analysis. Findings The results show procedural guides (e.g. the Major Crime Investigation Manual) are important quality assurance mechanisms for review officers, helping ensure the appropriate and necessary lines of inquiry have been pursued. However, they were keen to emphasise the importance of intuition in progressing cases but felt continuously hindered by a lack of resources and large numbers of applicable cases. To the best of the authors’ knowledge this study is the first exploration of cold case detective’s experiences of the live review processes and how they may pose challenges in case progression for cognitive errors and biases. While the study has identified some challenges facing review officers in nine police forces across the UK, wider examination of policies, practices and mechanisms should be explored to develop the current procedural guidance (e.g. NPCC, 2021). Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge this exploratory study is the first exploration of cold case detective’s experiences of the live review processes and how they may pose challenges in case progression for cognitive errors and biases. While the study has identified some challenges facing review officers in nine police forces across the UK, wider examination of policies, practices and mechanisms should be explored to develop the current procedural guidance (e.g. NPCC, 2021).

This paper presents the findings of a mixed-method study exploring the self-reported negative impact on wellbeing of working in policing in England and Wales during the Covid-19 pandemic. For the first time, findings relating to the wellbeing of UK police and police staff are presented from two different points in time during the pandemic period - the initial 'lockdown phase' (March 2020) and Autumn 2021 as the UK began to return to pre-pandemic social behaviours. A first study presents data collected via electronic survey, completed in June 2021 by more than 500 UK police officers and staff, exploring how they felt initially about the Covid-19 pandemic and how they felt later in 2021. For example, how it affected their work and how they dealt with the changes in working practices. A second study presents an Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis of 18 interviews capturing the individual 'life experiences' of UK police officers and staff working in variety of policing roles during the pandemic. Key themes identified include the negative effects of working at home and the worry of spreading the disease to loved ones. Recommendations are made for how police forces can better support the wellbeing of officers and staff during pandemic scenarios and increase resilience. For example, by quickly identifying those officers and staff most vulnerable to the disease and/or most anxious generally at the start of a pandemic, to plan for how appropriate support can be provided, and acknowledge that police staff feel most isolated when working from home.

The role of police and crime commissioner (PCC) was created in England and Wales in November 2012 by the Conservative and Liberal Democrat Coalition government. Until 2012, the management and operation of the individual 43 police forces in England and Wales had been overseen by police authorities, which consisted of councillors and independent members. PCCs were retained by the Conservative government that took office in 2016, and a second round of PCC elections took place in May 2016. The Police and Crime Act 2017 introduced opportunities for PCCs to take on responsibility for fire and rescue governance. The new arrangements have however, been criticised, both for the election process itself and for some of the ways in which elected PCCs have operated. This chapter charts the evolution of the role of the PCC in England and Wales over the past decade and discusses the role in the governance of policing in England and Wales.

This textbook investigates how psychological research can be applied to practical policing. It explores new ways psychological knowledge can be used in broad areas of policing and uniquely demonstrates its use in specific aspects of practical policing. Encouraging critical reflection, this book is essential reading for practitioners and students.

Presented in this chapter is how psychology can and should be used by police and others to inform the prevention of crime. An exploration of what can be done using several crime prevention approaches; namely, Clarke’s Situational Crime Prevention (1997) and Thaler and Sunstein’s ‘Nudge’ (2008). Examples include the adoption of a nudge approach to reducing thefts from insecure vehicles and guidance on how to devise nudges is presented (NUDGE_IT). Finally, suggestions are made for how to counter accusations that giving prevention advice to potential victims is tantamount to blaming them for being victims of crime, with the REACT acronym presented.

This chapter explores how psychological research and policing can heavily interact when examining how police work can negatively affect the wellbeing of police personnel. The brief review of the research in this area presented here suffices to demonstrate the existence of different types and levels of impact on police wellbeing, according to different types of police work, including different types of criminal investigation: general investigative work, child sexual abuse investigation, and crime scene investigation.

This chapter provides a context for the book. The reader is presented with an idea of the historical relationship between crime, policing, craft, science, and psychology, and how this relationship has evolved. Although not an exhaustive list, some key points where psychological research has interacted with, and indeed influenced, aspects of policing, including offender profiling, the interviewing of suspects and witnesses, and crime prevention, have been highlighted to demonstrate how psychological research can improve police practice.

This chapter is short in order to better encourage the reader into feeling that this book is more of a beginning than an end, more of a work in progress than fait accompli. If achieved, then it is hoped it will either provoke or stimulate further thought as to where the relationship between psychological research and knowledge and policing might need to focus and develop in the future. Some areas suggested include, how police–researcher relationships might blossom, police wellbeing and psychology, and policing and the internet (cybercrime).

This chapter puts the versatile-offender approach to the sword by introducing the Self-Selection Policing (SSP) approach. A case is made for SSP to be adopted by police as a complimentary way of identifying active, serious criminals, by the minor crimes they commit. The argument made is that a growing body of research shows that police if police are encouraged to adopt the SSP approach into their current ‘policing armoury’, then more active, serious criminals will be uncovered and brought to justice, but that this first necessitates a change in police thinking towards the versatile offender. The chapter concludes with some suggestions for how police can best employ and implement SSP and a checklist is provided to help those interested in conducting SSP interventions of their own.

Psychologists in the UK continue to make a varied and valuable contribution to police work, much of which is explored in this chapter. It is suggested that the current working definition of what constitutes a ‘forensic psychologist’ in the UK only narrowly describes those who work to reform and rehabilitate prisoners and does not include work done by psychologists with police. Such contributions by psychologists to policing discussed in this chapter include offender profiling; detecting lies and deceit; interviewing suspects, victims and witnesses; investigative decision making; cognitive bias and criminal investigations; linking serious crimes to offenders; problem solving; and the prevention of crime.