With advancing road technologies and growing traffic complexity, a major challenge is to inform drivers through clear and concise messages. This study examines how drivers understand Variable Message Signs indicating the location of an event relative to a city. Four message designs were tested, resulting from two crossed factors: the event category was informed by either a word or a pictogram, and the location of the event was indicated by either a word or an arrow. Twenty-four drivers were asked to identify the message as quickly and accurately as possible. Compared to text: (1) for the event, pictograms led to faster (Mpictogram = 6112 ms; Mtext = 6338 ms) and more accurate (Rpictogram = 1.00; Rtext = 0.99) responses; (2) for the location, the arrow resulted in worse accuracy (Rarrow = 0.98; Rtext = 0.99) and response time (Marrow = 6261 ms; Mtext = 6189 ms). Text-pictogram combinations may constitute a functional strategy toward the harmonization and internationalization of road signage, although the effectiveness of specific combinations likely depends on how clearly each element conveys its meaning.

Objectives To investigate the word recognition effects of the use of all-uppercase (e.g., VALENCIA) or titled-case (e.g., Valencia) for city names in traffic signs, controlling for word size, and comparing stationary and dynamic viewing situations. Background Prior studies provide mixed evidence regarding the effects of word case on the recognition of city names in traffic signs. Moreover, the evidence on the potential impact of visual motion on these effects is scarce. Method We carried out an experimental study using simulated traffic signs. The task was to indicate, for each sign, whether it contained a given city name or not (word search task, 50% positive trials). Visual motion of signs was manipulated as a between-participants factor: stationary (the sign was still) versus dynamic (the sign expanded as if the participant was approaching to it). Word case was manipulated as a within-participants factor: all-uppercase versus two titled-case conditions varying in font size: width-matched titled-case and point size-matched titled-case. Results In both the stationary and dynamic conditions, all-uppercase resulted in more incorrect responses and slower latencies than width-matched titled-case. When compared to point size-matched titled-case, all-uppercase produced slower correct responses in the stationary condition, whereas faster in the dynamic condition. Conclusion Other factors being equal, all-uppercase city names will be recognized worse than their titled-case versions in traffic signs, both in stationary and dynamic situations. Application Results in the current experimental study would be of interest in the design of traffic signs and other circumstances in which text is presented in motion.

Partially autonomous vehicles can help minimize human errors. However, being free from some driving subtasks can result in a low vigilance state, which can affect the driver’s attention towards the road. The present study first tested whether drivers of partially autonomous vehicles would benefit from the addition of auditory versions of the messages presented in variable message signs (VMS), particularly, when they find themselves in a monotonous driving situation. A second aim was to test whether the addition of auditory messages would also produce an indirect effect on the driver’s vigilance, improving performance on other driving subtasks not related to the message processing. Forty-three volunteers participated in a driving simulator study. They completed two tasks: (a) a VMS task, where they had to regain manual control of the car if the VMS message was critical, and (b) a car-following task, where they had to pay attention to the preceding car to respond to occasional brake events. Behavioral and EEG data were registered. Overall, results indicated that the addition of audio messages helped drivers process VMS information more effectively and maintain a higher level of vigilance throughout the driving time. These findings would provide useful information for the development of partially automated vehicles, as their design must guarantee that the driver remains attentive enough to assume control when necessary.

INTRODUCTION:Highly automated driving is expected to reduce the accident risk occurrence by human errors, but it can also increase driver distraction. Previous evidence shows that auditory signals can help drivers take over in critical situations. However, it is still uncertain whether the potential benefit of verbal auditory signals could be generalized to driving situations where drivers are visually and auditorily distracted. METHOD:Our first objective was to compare the effectiveness of complementary audio messages (audio + visual condition) and visual only (visual condition) variable message signs (VMS) messages. The second objective was to explore the potential use of oral messages with traffic information to help highly-automated vehicle drivers identify critical situations. Eye-tracking data were also registered. Twenty-four volunteers participated in a driving simulator study, completing two tasks: (a) a TV series task, where they had to pay attention to an episode of a TV series while traveling along the route; and (b) a VMS task, where they had to recover the manual control of the car if the VMS message was a 'critical message.' RESULTS:General results showed that, when the audio was available, the participants: (a) had a higher ability to discriminate the VMS messages, (b) were less conservative, (c) responded earlier, and (d) their pattern of fixations was more efficient. A complementary analysis showed that the counterbalance order was a moderating factor for the discrimination ability and the response distance measures. This evidence suggests a potential learning effect, not cancelled by counterbalancing the order of the conditions. CONCLUSION:The processing of traffic messages may improve when provided as oral and visual messages. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS:These results would be of special interest for engineers designing highly automated cars, considering that the design of automated systems must ensure that the driver's attention is sufficient to take over control.

We examined the effects of different types of cognitive distraction coming from a hands-free phone conversation on the processing of information provided by variable message signs (VMS), on driving performance indicators, and on a physiological index of mental effort (heart rate). Participants drove a route in a driving simulator and had to respond to VMS messages under three conditions: no-distraction, visuospatial distraction (attending phone calls with questions inducing visuospatial processing), and conceptual distraction (attending phone calls with questions requiring semantic memory). Results showed more errors responding to VMS messages in the visuospatial distraction condition. In addition, both types of questions increased the intraindividual variability of response distances and the heart rate, as compared to the no-distraction condition. These results provide new evidence that talking on a hands-free phone entails costs in the processing of traffic information (in particular, text messages displayed on VMS) and it increases the driver's cognitive effort. Interestingly, the cognitive distraction had no effect on the driver's control of the vehicle speed or lateral position. Therefore, the effects of potential risk factors can critically vary among the different driving subtasks due to modulatory factors, such as the level of attentional task demands (relatively high in the processing of messages on VMS, but relatively low in controlling the speed and lateral position of the vehicle in quiet traffic conditions). In consequence, the current paper provides new evidence to discuss hands-free phone policies and highlights the importance of designing technological countermeasures to prevent drivers missing critical information displayed on VMS.

DATA REPORT article Front. Psychol., 19 October 2020Sec. Educational Psychology Volume 11 - 2020 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.575241

Over the past few years, there has been growing interest in using online methods for collecting data from large samples. However, only a few studies have administered online behavioral tasks to assess attention outside the lab. In the present study, we assessed the classic attentional functions and two vigilance components using two versions of the Attentional Networks Test for Interactions and Vigilance–executive and arousal vigilance components (ANTI-Vea): (1) a standard version, performed under typical experimental conditions (n = 314), and (2) an online version, completed outside the lab (n = 303). Both versions were equally effective in assessing (1) the main effects and interactions of phasic alertness, orienting, and executive control, and (2) the executive (i.e., a decline in the ability to detect infrequent critical signals) and the arousal (i.e., a progressive slowness and variability in responses to stimuli from the environment) vigilance decrement across time on task. Responses were generally slower in the online than in the standard version. Importantly, the split-half reliability observed for both tasks was (1) higher for executive control (~.67) than for phasic alertness and orienting (< .40), as observed in previous versions of the task, and (2) between .71 and .99 for the executive and arousal vigilance measures. We expect the present study will be of interest to researchers aiming to assess attentional functions with a valid and reliable method that, importantly, is publicly available on an open website ( https://www.ugr.es/~neurocog/ANTI/ ) and is easy to use in applied contexts.

Adults with dyslexia may find difficulties in reading the messages on variable message signs (VMS) while driving. These signs are an essential part of the traffic communication systems, aimed at informing road users of special circumstances, such as congestion, traffic diversion, or unexpected events. A driving simulation experiment was conducted to test if complementary audio versions of the VMS would be helpful for drivers with dyslexia. Twenty adults with dyslexia and 20 matched controls participated. They were asked to classify the messages displayed on VMS posted along a simulated route, which was completed twice: one with text VMS (visual condition), and another one with text VMS plus complementary audio messages (audio + visual condition). The results showed that in the ordinary, visual condition, the participants with dyslexia needed to be closer to the VMS than controls to correctly classify the message, but, crucially, these group differences vanished when the driver received an audio version of the message (audio + visual condition). Moreover, the availability of audio versions had positive effects for all participants, as shown by higher accuracy in the message classification task, as well as better driving performance. Therefore, technologies aimed at providing audio versions of VMS can help drivers with dyslexia. A mobile application, READit VMS, which is able to provide real-time complementary audio versions of VMS, is presented as an example.

A group of adult individuals with dyslexia and a matched group of normally reading individuals participated in a driving simulation experiment. Participants were asked to read the word presented on every direction traffic sign encountered along a route, as far as possible from the sign, maintaining driving performance. Word frequency and word length were manipulated as within-subject factors. We analyzed (a) reading accuracy, (b) how far the sign was when the participant started to give the response, (c) where the participant looked during the time leading up to the response, and (d) the variability of the vehicle's speed during that time and during driving on similar segments of the route that did not present the traffic signs. Individuals with dyslexia showed lower levels of performance in the reading task, the roles of word frequency and word length were more influential for them, and there was larger variability of the vehicle's speed during the time they were attempting to read the traffic sign, which did not occur during their driving on similar segments that did not present the targeted traffic signs. Therefore, the specific needs of individuals with dyslexia on the road should be considered in plans aimed at increasing traffic safety and fluidity.

When driving a vehicle, do we read the words displayed on traffic signs just as we do in more standard conditions? In the driving context, stimulus quality is generally worse, and reading has to be performed at the same time as we are doing other tasks. In the present work, we examined the effects of word frequency and word length on reading in such circumstances. A stimulus presentation mimicking the approach to the traffic sign increased the effect of word frequency, but not the effect of word length, on reading latency. In addition, performing the reading task while driving along a simulated route produced similar results. Therefore, in the context of the driving activity, the advantage of high-frequency over low-frequency words seems to be even more relevant than in standard conditions. Traffic sign designers can consider these results when deciding the most appropriate word in a variable message sign.

Would an increase in the default interletter spacing improve the legibility of words in traffic signs? Previous evidence on traffic sign design and recent studies on the cognitive processes involved in visual word recognition have provided conflicting results. The present work examined whether an increase in the default interletter spacing would improve the search of a word in direction traffic signs. To achieve this objective, twenty-two drivers participated in a driving simulation experiment. They followed a highway route and indicated whether a target place name was present among a set of distractors shown on direction traffic signs along the route. We compared the default interletter spacing of the Spanish "CC Rige" font (which is based on the internationally-used Transport font) and a 2.5-times expanded interletter spacing. The results revealed that the drivers were able to give a correct response at a distance to the traffic sign that was on average longer in the expanded than in the default spacing condition. This advantage in the legibility distance was observed in the absence of significant differences in reading accuracy, gaze behavior, or driving performance measures. Therefore, the evidence provided supports that drivers can benefit from a slight increase in interletter spacing relative to the standard spacing. Some of the design factors influencing this effect are discussed.

Objective: The current research shows the advantage of single-word messages in the particular case of variable message signs (VMSs) with a high aspect ratio. Background: Early studies on traffic sign design proposed that pictorial information would advantage equivalent text messages in static signs. Method: We used a driving simulator to present individually 36 VMSs, showing six words (e.g., “congestion”) and six danger signs (e.g., congestion traffic sign). In Experiment 1, 18 drivers read aloud the text or orally identified the pictograms as soon as they could correctly do it. In Experiment 2, a different sample of 18 drivers gave a motor response, according to the meaning of the message. We analyzed the legibility distance and accuracy, driving performance (speed variability), and glance behavior. Results: Our results show that single-word messages were associated with better performance (farther reading distances) and required less visual demands (fewer glances and less glancing times) than pictograms. Conclusion: As typical configurations of VMSs usually have a high aspect ratio, and thus allow large character heights, single-word messages can outperform the legibility of pictograms. However, the final advantage of text or pictorial messages would depend on several factors, such as the driver’s knowledge of the language and the pictogram set, the use of single or multiple words, the particular design and size of critical details in letters and pictograms, environmental factors, and driver age. Application: Potential applications include the design of VMSs and other devices aimed at displaying text and/or pictograms with a high aspect ratio.

A timely and accurate acquisition of the information provided by variable message signs (VMS) can be crucial while driving. In the current study, we assess the difficulties of adults with dyslexia acquiring the information shown in VMS and provide evidence to discuss the controversial use of pictograms as potential countermeasures. Twenty-two adults with dyslexia and 22 matched controls completed a simulated driving session. The legibility of 12 VMS was assessed, including six text messages (e.g. "ACCIDENT") and six single pictograms (e.g. the icon for "accident ahead"). On average, participants with dyslexia started reading text messages when they were closer to the VMS. In addition, while approaching text VMS, they dedicated more gazes and manifested worse control of speed. Regarding pictogram VMS, we observed no differences in response distance, accuracy, response duration, or number of gazes. To sum up, the evidence provided reveals that adults with dyslexia, despite potential compensation effects, may still find difficulties reading text messages in VMS (shorter legibility distances, longer reading times, and increased cognitive effort), whereas we found no such differences in the recognition of pictograms (only some difficulties keeping a steady speed). Research on inclusive measures to improve reading in low-skilled or dyslexic drivers must be encouraged.

Background: Vigilance is generally understood as the ability to detect infrequent critical events through long time periods. In tasks like the Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART), participants tend to detect fewer events across time, a phenomenon known as "vigilance decrement". However, vigilance might also involve sustaining a tonic arousal level. In the Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT), the vigilance decrement corresponds to an increment across time in both mean and variability of reaction time. New Method: The present study aimed to develop a single task -Attentional Networks Test for Interactions and Vigilance - executive and arousal components (ANTI-vea)- to simultaneously assess both components of vigilance (i.e., the executive vigilance as in the SART, and the arousal vigilance as in the PVT), while measuring the classic attentional functions (phasic alertness, orienting, and executive control). Results: In Experiment #1, the executive vigilance decrement was found as an increment in response bias. In Experiment #2, this result was replicated, and the arousal vigilance decrement was simultaneously observed as an increment in reaction time. Comparison with Existing Method: The ANTI-Vea solves some issues observed in the previous ANTI-V task with the executive vigilance measure (e.g., a low hit rate and no vigilance decrement). Furthermore, the new ANTI-Vea task assesses both components of vigilance together with others typical attentional functions. Conclusions: The new attentional networks test developed here may be useful to provide a better understanding of the human attentional system. The role of sensitivity and response bias in the executive vigilance decrement are discussed.

BACKGROUND:Previous research suggested that vigilance may moderate the functioning of other attentional components. However, vigilance is usually neglected when comparing the attentional functioning between groups of clinical and/or healthy participants.NEW METHOD:We combined data from several studies using the Attention Network Test for Interactions and Vigilance (ANTI-V), which includes a vigilance measure plus phasic alertness, orienting, and executive control scores. We estimated, for the first time, the reliability of the vigilance performance indices in the ANTI-V, by analyzing split-half correlations of 10,000 permutations of the trials. In addition, we tested whether a different attentional functioning would be found across the group of healthy participants varying in their vigilance performance, by using a considerably larger sample size (226 participants) than previous studies.RESULTS:Vigilance indices were the most reliable among the different attentional scores. Regression models show an inverse relationship between vigilance and phasic alertness and executive control.COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS:No previous study has analysed the reliability of the vigilance performance indices in the ANTI-V. In comparison with other ANT variations, the ANTI-V provides a reliable measure of vigilance together with the typical phasic alertness, orienting and executive control scores. In addition, we provide estimates, based on a large sample size, of the magnitude of the link between vigilance and other attentional functions.CONCLUSIONS:When assessing the multiple functions of attention, the current study highlights the importance of measuring vigilance, which may modulate the functioning of other attentional components, such as phasic alertness or executive control.

Prior research developed the Attention-Related Driving Errors Scale (ARDES), a 19-item questionnaire aimed at evaluating the drivers' predisposition to attentional error, and also provided validity evidence of ARDES measures across two countries: Argentina and Spain. In the current work we adapt the Spanish version of the ARDES to the English language and the culture, traffic regulations and driving habits of the UK, and then provide new evidence of the cross-cultural equivalence of the scale. First, an improved forward and backward translation design was used to translate the Spanish ARDES into English. A committee approach review process was also performed during the translation phase to guarantee that the English ARDES was the most appropriate to reflect the language, culture, traffic regulations and driving habits of the UK. Second, the adapted questionnaire was tested on 301 British drivers to inspect its psychometric properties and study the relationships between the ARDES-UK and different socio-demographic variables. In agreement with the previous literature, the results of the factor analysis confirmed a single factor and accounting for 33.84% of the variance. Cronbach's alpha was equal to.89. The observed pattern of relationships of the scores and the different socio-demographic variables was consistent with previous evidence and support the validity of the adapted questionnaire. For example, the ARDES-UK scores were significantly different between drivers reporting and not reporting traffic accidents with material damage. To conclude with, the translation design and the resulting psychometric suggest the validity of ARDES-UK measures for evaluating the British drivers' predisposition to attentional error. In addition, the evidence in the current work supports the hypothesis of the cross-cultural stability of the scale across Spain and the UK. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.