Dredging is commonly used to maintain navigational channels in freshwater lakes such as Lake Erie, and the dredged material may be discarded in confined disposal facilities (CDFs). The effects of these CDFs on wildlife health are largely unknown. We compared health assessments of painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) at two sites in southwestern Lake Erie, Ohio, USA in May 2022: CDF for dredged material (n=27), and a protected coastal marsh (PCM; n=24). Each turtle underwent a physical examination, blood collection for hematology and plasma biochemistry profiles, and testing for Chlamydia spp., herpesviruses, ranavirus (frog virus 3), and Mycoplasmopsis spp. via oral and cloacal swabs. Six turtles were positive for Chlamydia spp. (11.8%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 4.4%-23.9%), two from the CDF and four from the PCM. One Chlamydia-positive turtle was co-infected with herpesvirus (2.0%; 95% CI: 0%-10.5%) with 96.3% homology with emydid herpesvirus. No ranavirus or Mycoplasmopsis species were detected (0%, 95% CI: 0%-6.7%). Turtles captured from the CDF had significantly higher heterophil percentages, heterophil/lymphocyte ratios, and glucose levels, but significantly lower total protein and calcium/phosphorus ratios than turtles from PCM. Turtles living in the CDF were hyperglycemic, potentially indicating increased stress levels compared to the normoglycemic turtles from PCM. As humans continue to alter wetland habitats, the impact of anthropogenic sites such as CDFs on freshwater chelonian health and welfare should be monitored.

American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) are an important apex predator of semiaquatic habitats of the southern United States. Commercial alligator farming has grown in the last several decades, leading to a need to understand the health conditions that affect this species to ensure appropriate management and welfare. The aims of this study were 1) to establish and describe normative data including results of common ophthalmic diagnostic tests and conjunctival flora, 2) document ocular pathology in this population, and 3) assess the effect of topical rocuronium bromide and 10% phenylephrine for facilitating pharmacologic mydriasis. A total of 165 juvenile American alligators were evaluated in this study. Assessment included palpebral fisanterior segment examination, and bacterial and fungal culture sampling of the conjunctiva. Topical rocuronium bromide (RB) and 10% phenylephrine (PE) were applied to the right eye (OD) of eight individuals, and pupil diameter (PD) of both eyes measured at regular time intervals. Mean (+/- standard deviation [SD]) PFL was 10.55 +/- 1.47 mm, IOP was 8.16 +/- 1.48 mmHg, CCT was 150.06 +/- 8.25 lm, and SM was 3.42 +/- 2.07 mm/5 s. Culture results stress the importance of proper handling protocols in crocodilians given the high number of opportunistic pathogens isolated from the conjunctiva, as well as the first report of isolation of Lactococcus garvieae in this species. Acquired ophthalmic lesions, likely traumatic, were recorded and no congenital anomalies were observed. Topical administration of RB and PE resulted in a significant increase in nonilluminated pupil diameter (PD) starting at 20 min, and maximum dilation was achieved at 90 min. Fundic examination was achievable, and no adverse systemic effects were noted. This study contributes to a growing body of knowledge regarding ocular health of American alligators.

1. Public aquariums are organizations that offer their visitors an opportunity to engage with, gain knowledge of, and contribute to the conservation of species and ecosystems. Unfortunately, the ways many aquariums maintain their populations include primarily sourcing marine species from the wild. This creates the potential for negative impacts to stressed aquatic environments and a need for a holistic approach to quantify the impacts of aquarium population management. 2. The objective of this study was to implement a developed One Welfare-Based Ecosystem Model to predict impacts of aquarium population management on humans, animals, and the environment. Ecosystem indicators were selected and grouped into physical-chemical, biological, and socio-economic categories. Data included measurements of environmental and animal indicators at field sites frequently visited by aquariums to collect animals from, aquarium visitor surveys, and publicly available data. Model development included comparing field data to reference information and then adding weightings based on indicator significance and alpha-testing of the model. 3. At model completion, each institution was allocated a One Welfare status. Confidence ratings of measured indicators and reference data occurred for each field site to determine the appropriateness of use of the model for each aquarium. 4. Findings included a positive One Welfare status, with collaborating institutions scoring in the good and excellent categories (81.92/100 and 92.51/100). Confidence ratings showed positive results (62/100 and 78/100) for model applicability for the field sites studied as well as future use by other institutions assessing similar parameters. 5. To maintain their recognition as leaders in conservation, public aquariums must objectively assess their direct and indirect influence on marine ecosystems moving forward.

Soybean meal based diets have been suggested to cause gastrointestinal issues in certain species when used as a protein alternative. Using a randomized design, we tested 1,728 alligators in one of 13 communal pens offered one of two diets (seven pens (n = 928) of soybean-based protein diets and six pens (n = 800) of animal-based protein diets) to determine if soybeans would negatively affect the growth, hide quality, behavior and health, when compared with an otherwise identical diet using animal-based protein. Both feeds were nearly identical in composition for protein and fat percentages and identical for all minerals and elements. Crude protein was a minimum of 50%, crude fat a minimum of 12%, crude fiber a minimum of 4%, and phosphorous was maintained at 1%. From this information we estimated the One Welfare of using soy as a protein in commercial diets. Although there was a statistically significant decrease in belly width (p = 0.0009; harvested hide size) for alligators fed soybean-based protein diets, all other measured parameters of soybean vs. animal-based protein diets were comparable, suggesting this environmentally sustainable alternative protein source warrants consideration as a feed base. Weight was not significantly different suggesting either diet would yield similar volumes of meat. Total length was significantly affected by diet. Hide quality was not negatively impacted by protein type, with both diets producing high quality hides free of defects (assessed at the salted hide stage prior to tanning). Behaviors were not influenced by the feed type, with animals fed either diet using the pen structures the same. Further, feeding times were the same suggesting the soybean-based protein diet was equally easy to eat and palatable as the animal-based protein diet. Behavior and feeding suggested soy-based diets do not alter time budgets or activities. There were no differences in the frequency or severity of pathologies for animals fed either diet. Respiratory (lung and trachea as a proxy to measure dust inhalation), gastrointestinal (small intestine as a proxy to measure digestive disturbances), and renal (kidney as a proxy for excretory stress) histopathology demonstrated neither diet was causing overt problems. One Welfare conclusions were feeding a soybean-based protein diet did not cause production or welfare issues. Further, soybean protein-based diets may be an environmentally sustainable alternative to currently used animal-based diets. Research examining different soybean protein concentrations and sources is warranted.

This protocol describes a minimally invasive surgical technique and approach to successfully examine the gonads of live female American alligators as part of a reproductive examination used in conservation medicine and biology. Best practices are based on examination of over 80 American alligators in the last two years adapting principles derived from other reptilian megafauna species. This protocol is designed for appropriately qualified veterinarians and biologists working in the field. We show likely reproductive tract presentations with respect to breeding status and environmental cues to help guide interpretation of observations. The laparoscopic approach and findings presented here provide tools to safely clinically examine animals in a welfare-oriented way that will advance our understanding of crocodilian reproduction. This technique has not previously been described in this species.

Aquatic ecosystems are currently facing a multitude of stressors from anthropogenic impacts, including climate change, pollution, and overfishing. Public aquariums positively contribute to ecosystems through conservation, education, and scientific advancement; but may also negatively detract from these systems through collection of animals from the wild and sourcing from commercial suppliers. Changes within the industry have occurred, although evidence-based assessments of 1) how aquariums collect and maintain their populations to determine sustainability of the environment they have harvested; and 2) the welfare of these harvested animals once within the aquariums are still needed. The objectives of this study were to assess the ecosystem health of locations aquariums frequently visit to collect fish from the wild, and then evaluate the wellbeing of fishes at aquariums after extended periods in captivity. Assessments included use of chemical, physical, and biological indicators at field sites, and use of a quantitative welfare assessment at aquariums for comparison to species reared through aquaculture. Anthropogenic pressures at field sites were observed, but no evidence of high degradation or compromised health of animals were found. Welfare assessments of aquarium exhibit tanks produced high-positive scores overall (> 70/84), demonstrating that both wild collected (avg. score 78.8) and aquaculture fishes (avg. score 74.5) were coping appropriately within their environments. Although findings indicated that fish can be taken from the wild at low-moderate rates without any deleterious impact on the environment and cope equally well in aquarium settings, alternatives such as aquaculture should be considered as a strategy to reduce pressure on known stressed aquatic environments or where significant numbers of fishes are being taken.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged in humans in late 2019 and spread rapidly, becoming a global pandemic. A zoonotic spillover event from animal to human was identified as the presumed origin. Subsequently, reports began emerging regarding spillback events resulting in SARS-CoV-2 infections in multiple animal species. These events highlighted critical links between animal and human health while also raising concerns about the development of new reservoir hosts and potential viral mutations that could alter the virulence and transmission or evade immune responses. Characterizing susceptibility, prevalence, and transmission between animal species became a priority to help protect animal and human health. In this study, we coalesced a large team of investigators and community partners to surveil for SARS-CoV-2 in domestic and free-ranging animals around Ohio between May 2020 and August 2021. We focused on species with known or predicted susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection, highly congregated or medically compromised animals (e.g., shelters, barns, veterinary hospitals), and animals that had frequent contact with humans (e.g., pets, agricultural animals, zoo animals, or animals in wildlife hospitals). This included free-ranging deer (n = 76 individuals), free-ranging mink (n = 57), multiple species of bats (n = 59), and other wildlife in addition to domestic cats (n = 275) and pigs (n = 184). In total, we tested 792 individual animals (34 species) via rRT-PCR for SARS-CoV-2 RNA. SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA was not detected in any of the tested animals despite a major peak in human SARS-CoV-2 cases that occurred in Ohio subsequent to the peak of animal samplings. Importantly, we did not test for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in this study, which limited our ability to assess exposure. While the results of this study were negative, the surveillance effort was critical and remains key to understanding, predicting, and preventing the re-emergence of SARS-CoV-2 in humans or animals.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged in humans in late 2019 and spread rapidly to become a global pandemic. A zoonotic spillover event from animal to human was identified as the presumed origin. Subsequently, reports began emerging regarding spillback events resulting in SARS-CoV-2 infections in multiple animal species. These events highlighted critical links between animal and human health while also raising concerns about the development of new reservoir hosts and potential viral mutations that could alter virulence and transmission or evade immune responses. Characterizing susceptibility, prevalence, and transmission between animal species became a priority to help protect animal and human health. In this study, we coalesced a large team of investigators and community partners to surveil for SARS-CoV-2 in domestic and free-ranging animals around Ohio between May 2020 and August 2021. We focused on species with known or predicted susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection, highly congregated or medically compromised animals (e.g. shelters, barns, veterinary hospitals), and animals that had frequent contact with humans (e.g. pets, agricultural animals, zoo animals, or animals in wildlife hospitals). This included free-ranging deer (n=76), mink (n=57), multiple species of bats (n=65), and other wildlife in addition to domestic cats (n=275) and pigs (n= 184). In total, we tested 800 animals (34 species) via rRT-PCR for SARS-CoV-2 RNA. SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA was not detected in any of the tested animals despite a major peak in human SARS-CoV-2 cases that occurred in Ohio subsequent to the peak of animal samplings. Importantly, due to lack of validated tests for animals, we did not test for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in this study, which limited our ability to assess exposure. While the results of this study were negative, the surveillance effort was critical and remains key to understanding, predicting, and preventing re-emergence of SARS-CoV-2 in humans or animals.

Marine turtles are caught and slaughtered for consumption as part of traditional indigenous community harvest in Australia as well as in many countries in which marine turtles can be found. However, changes to the Animal Care and Protection Act 2001 in 2012 resulted in Australian indigenous hunters becoming potentially liable to prosecution for using traditional practices to slaughter marine turtles. To provide indigenous hunters with an alternative scientifically tested method to hunt, we developed and tested a humane method as an option to use in indigenous communities. Between 2012 and 2015, a device was developed, tested on 11 carcasses to determine effectiveness and repeatability, used on 5 anaesthetised animals independently diagnosed as candidates for euthanasia, and ultimately used on 2 healthy, conscious animals as part of normal indigenous community subsistence harvesting under observation before being left with the communities for use. Feedback was sought from the communities on the suitability and potential adoption of the device. The device effectively ablated the hind brain and severed the spinal cord when deployed in 81% (9/11) of the tested carcasses, with death in 100% (5/5) of turtles, on average, within 78 seconds of deployment on anaesthetised turtles and death in 100% (2/2) of turtles, on average, within 144 seconds when deployed on healthy turtles within community. Failure to ablate the hindbrain and sever the spinal cord in the cadaver cases was due to incorrect deployment of the device. This device showed promise as an alternative euthanasia method available to indigenous communities of the Torres Straits. Further work is required to encourage acceptance by hunters.

Harmful marine debris includes land and ship-sourced waste and abandoned fishing gear from recreational and commercial fisheries; these forms of debris are making their way into waterways and oceans with increasing frequency. For sirenians, marine debris and fisheries pose a significant risk to their well-being through entanglement, ingestion and hunting, both legal and illegal, as well as through more indirect ways, such as changing social structures and creating orphans through loss of cohorts. This chapter addresses the welfare impacts of marine debris and fisheries on sirenians. It also explores the changes in attitude that are occurring in many of the stakeholders involved and how these are translating into positive outcomes.

Globally, tropical and subtropical regions have experienced an increased frequency and intensity in extreme weather events, ranging from severe drought to protracted rain depressions and cyclones, these coincided with an increased number of marine turtles subsequently reported stranded. This study investigated the relationship between environmental variables and marine turtle stranding. The environmental variables examined in this study, in descending order of importance, were freshwater discharge, monthly mean maximum and minimum air temperatures, monthly average daily diurnal air temperature difference and rainfall for the latitudinal hotspots (-27°, -25°, -23°, -19°) along the Queensland coast as well as for major embayments within these blocks. This study found that marine turtle strandings can be linked to these environmental variables at different lag times (3-12 months), and that cumulative (months added together for maximum lag) and non-cumulative (single month only) effects cause different responses. Different latitudes also showed different responses of marine turtle strandings, both in response direction and timing.Cumulative effects of freshwater discharge in all latitudes resulted in increased strandings 10-12 months later. For latitudes -27°, -25° and -23° non-cumulative effects for discharge resulted in increased strandings 7-12 months later. Latitude -19° had different results for the non-cumulative bay with strandings reported earlier (3-6 months). Monthly mean maximum and minimum air temperatures, monthly average daily diurnal air temperature difference and rainfall had varying results for each examined latitude. This study will allow first responders and resource managers to be better equipped to deal with increased marine turtle stranding rates following extreme weather events.

Rehabilitation of marine turtles in Queensland has multifaceted objectives. It treats individual animals, serves to educate the public, and contributes to conservation. We examined the outcome from rehabilitation, time in rehabilitation, and subsequent recapture and restranding rates of stranded marine turtles between 1996 and 2013 to determine if the benefits associated with this practice are cost-effective as a conservation tool. Of 13,854 marine turtles reported as stranded during this 18-year period, 5,022 of these turtles were stranded alive with the remainder verified as dead or of unknown condition. A total of 2,970 (59%) of these live strandings were transported to a rehabilitation facility. Overall, 1,173/2,970 (39%) turtles were released over 18 years, 101 of which were recaptured: 77 reported as restrandings (20 dead, 13 alive subsequently died, 11 alive subsequently euthanized, 33 alive) and 24 recaptured during normal marine turtle population monitoring or fishing activities. Of the turtles admitted to rehabilitation exhibiting signs of disease, 88% of them died, either unassisted or by euthanasia and 66% of turtles admitted for unknown causes of stranding died either unassisted or by euthanasia. All turtles recorded as having a buoyancy disorder with no other presenting problem or disorder recorded, were released alive. In Queensland, rehabilitation costs approximately $1,000 per animal per year admitted to a center, $2,583 per animal per year released, and $123,750 per animal per year for marine turtles which are presumably successfully returned to the functional population. This practice may not be economically viable in its present configuration, but may be more cost effective as a mobile response unit. Further there is certainly benefit giving individual turtles a chance at survival and educating the public in the perils facing marine turtles. As well, rehabilitation can provide insight into the diseases and environmental stressors causing stranding, arming researchers with information to mitigate negative impacts.

In-water monitoring of marine vertebrates is usually expensive while the use of stranding data can be used to provide a cost-effective estimation of disease and mortality. Strandings for Queensland are recorded in a web based database (StrandNet) managed by the Queensland Government’s Department of Environment and Heritage Protection (EHP). Data recorded in StrandNet from the east coast of Queensland between 1996 and 2013 were investigated for patterns of stranding. Significant trends in Queensland over this time were (i) an increase in the number of animals reported stranded within this study site; (ii) a species (loggerhead and green marine turtles) prevalence; (iii) a seasonal effect on different age classes stranding with most overall strandings occurring between August and November; and (iv) stranding hotspots (Moreton Bay, Hervey Bay, Rockhampton region, and Cleveland Bays) persisting throughout the study timeframe. This study suggested that intervention strategies, such as rehabilitation, should be able to be focussed on periods of heightened importance and specific localities to minimize health risks and contribute to sustainable use of resources.