Plant tissue culture holds immense potential for the production of secondary metabolites with various physiological functions. We recently established a plant tissue culture system capable of producing secondary metabolites from Aster yomena. This study aimed to uncover the mechanisms underlying the potential therapeutic effects of Aster yomena callus pellet extract (AYC-P-E) on photoaging-induced skin pigmentation. Excessive melanogenesis was induced in B16F10 melanoma cells using α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH). The effects of AYC-P-E treatment on melanin biosynthesis inducers and melanin synthesis inhibition were assessed. Based on the results, a clinical study was conducted in subjects with skin pigmentation. AYC-P-E inhibited melanogenesis in α-MSH-treated B16F10 cells, accompanied by decreased mRNA and protein expression of melanin biosynthesis inducers, including cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB), tyrosinase, microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), tyrosinase related protein-1 (TRP-1), and TRP-2. This anti-melanogenic effect was mediated by mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and protein kinase B (AKT) phosphorylation. Treatment of subjects with skin pigmentation with AYC-P-E-containing cream formulations resulted in 3.33%, 7.06%, and 8.68% improvement in the melanin levels at 2, 4, and 8 weeks, respectively. Our findings suggest that AYC-P-E inhibits excessive melanogenesis by activating MEK/ERK and AKT signaling, potentiating its cosmetic applications in hyperpigmentation treatment.

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Orostachys japonicus A. Berger (O. japonicus), referred to as Wa-song in Korea is a traditional and herbal medicine. Even though it has been traditionally used to treat inflammation- and toxicityrelated diseases, the effects of ethanol extract of O. japonicus (OJE) on acetaminophen (N-acetyl-p-aminophenol, APAP) overdose-induced hepatotoxicity have not been determined yet. Aim of the study: The present study was aimed to investigate the effects of OJE against APAP-induced acute liver injury (ALI) and explore the underlying mechanisms. Materials and methods: Mice were treated orally with OJE (50, 100, or 200 mg/kg) for seven days before APAP (300 mg/kg) injection. After 12 h of APAP treatment, serum and liver tissues were collected. An in vitro system using primary hepatocytes was also applied in this study. Results: Pretreatment with OJE, especially at a dose of 200 mg/kg, reduced APAP overdose-induced ALI in mice, as evidenced by decreased serum alanine/aspartate aminotransferase levels, histopathological damage, and inflammation. Consistently, OJE pretreatment reduced the gene transcription of cytochmme P450 (CYP) 3A11 and CYP1A2 in livers of mice injected with or without APAP, at least in part, via inactivation of nuclear receptor pregnane X receptor (PXR). Furthermore, the role of PXR in mediating the OJE regulation of CYPs was confirmed in primary hepatocytes, which showed that OJE pretreatment inhibited PXR activity and APAP hepatotoxicity enhanced by pregnenolone 16 alpha-carbonitrile, a mouse agonist of PXR. Besides, the antioxidative activity provided by OJE, involving increases in hepatic glutathione (GSH) content and decreases in malondialdehyde levels, has been shown to exert hepatoprotective effects in normal and injured livers. Moreover, APAP-activated c-Jun Nterminal kinase (JNK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) in mice liver were indirectly inhibited by pretreatment with OJE. Conclusions: Taken together, our findings showed that OJE attenuated APAP-induced ALI by decreasing APAP-metabolizing enzymes via inactivation of PXR and the restoration of hepatic GSH content. Therefore, OJE could be a promising hepatoprotective agent.

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a threaten human health problem, and accompanied by hyperglycemia and disorder of insulin secretion, is a major cause of abnormalities in maintaining blood glucose homeostasis. Also, low-grade inflammation, as well as insulin resistance (IR), is a common feature in patients with T2D. Numerous causes of the outbreak of T2D have been suggested by researchers, who indicate that genetic background and epigenetic predisposition, such as overnutrition and deficient physical activity, hasten the promotion of T2D milieu. Orostachys japonicus A. Berger (O. japonicus) is a herbal and remedial plant whose various activities include hemostatic, antidotal, febrile, and anti-inflammatory. Hence, we designed to evaluate the antidiabetic efficacy of ethanol extracts of O. japonicus (OJE). Six-week-old C57BL/Ksj-db/db (db/db) mice were used. The results showed that mice given various concentrations of OJE (0, 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg per day) for 8 weeks showed significantly reduced hyperglycemia, IR, and liver injury, confirmed by measuring diabetic parameters, serum, and hepatic biochemicals. Furthermore, the treatment of OJE markedly decreased the mRNA levels of proinflammatory cytokines, lipid accumulation, and gluconeogenesis-related genes. Consistently, western blot analysis indicated that mice treated with OJE showed increased levels of phospho-c-Jun N-terminal kinase, phospho-Akt, glucose transporters 2 and 4 (GLUT2 and GLUT4) in T2D mice. Likewise, much the same results were obtained in in vitro experiments. Taken together, OJE had hopeful advantage in sustaining the glucose homeostasis and diminishing IR, and could be a safe alternative remedy for treating T2D.

Aster yomena (A. yomena) extract has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-asthma, and anti-atopic effects. However, the commercial use of A. yomena extract requires a long processing time with specific processing steps (including heat treatment and ethanol precipitation), and there are various environmental problems. We aimed to build a system to produce A. yomena extract by culturing the callus in a bioreactor that can allow rapid process scale-up to test the effect of extract (AYC-CS-E) isolated from culture supernatant of A. yomena callus on photoaging of human keratinocytes (HaCaT) caused by ultraviolet B (UVB) exposure. Through screening analysis based on ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC/Q-TOF-MS), 17 major metabolites were tentatively identified from AYC-CS-E for the first time. The suppression of cell proliferation caused by UVB was effectively alleviated in UVB-irradiated HaCaT cells treated with AYC-CS-E. Treatment with AYC-CS-E strongly induced the formation of type I procollagen and the inhibition of elastase in UVB-irradiated HaCaT cells and significantly reduced the expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1. In addition, treatment of UVB-irradiated HaCaT cells with AYC-CS-E effectively improved various factors associated with an inflammatory reaction, skin damage recovery, skin moisture retention, and hyper-keratinization caused by photoaging, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), pro-inflammatory cytokines, transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), MMP-3, MMP-9, filaggrin, hyaluronic acid synthase 2 (HAS-2), keratin 1 (KRT-1), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) at the gene and protein levels. These results suggest that AYC-CS-E can be used as a cosmetic ingredient for various skin diseases caused by photoaging, and the current callus culture system can be used commercially to supply cosmetic ingredients.

Selaginella tamariscina ( S. tamariscina ) (Beauv.) Spring (Selaginellaceae) has been used in oriental medicine for the treatment of dysmenorrhea, chronic hepatitis, hyperglycemia, amenorrhea, hematuria, prolapse of the anus and metrorrhagia. This study aimed to investigate the synergistic antibacterial activity with existing antimicrobial agents against oral pathogen. The synergistic effects of 50% ethanol extract of S. tamariscina (STE) were evaluated against oral bacteria, either alone or with antibiotics, via broth microdilution and time-kill method. The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) values for STE, ampicillin and gentamicin against all the tested bacteria ranged between 6.25-50/50-200 μg/mL, 0.0625-16/0.25-32 μg/mL, and 4-128/16-256 μg/ mL, respectively. STE in combination with ampicillin showed a strong synergistic effect against oral bacteria (fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) index ≤0.5), whereas on combining with gentamicin, it reduced the on half-eighth times than used alone (FICI ≤ 0.5). Furthermore, a time-kill study showed that the growth of the tested bacteria was completely attenuated after 2-6 h of treatment with 1/2 MIC of STE with 1/2 MIC of antibiotics resulted from an increase of the rate of killing in units of CFU/mL to a greater degree than was observed with alone. The results of this study demonstrate the antimicrobial and synergistic activity of STE and antibiotics against oral pathogens.

Orostachys japonicus A. Berger and Momordica charantia Linn have been widely used as an alternative medicine. Recently, patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D) have paid increasing attention to medical nutrition therapy due to its safety and cost-effectiveness. Therefore, we have developed a new health functional food that consists of a mixed extract of O. japonicus and M. charantia. The aim of this study is designed to assess the antidiabetic efficacy of O. japonicus and M. charantia extracts (OME, in an 8:2 ratio), especially focusing on the effects of O. japonicus via in vivo and in vitro experiments. Seven-week-old C57BL/Ksj-db/db (db/db; a genetic animal model of T2D) mice were used for inducing diabetes. Mice were administered with various concentrations of OME (OME 0, 100, 200, or 400 mg/kg/day) for 6 weeks. Metabolic parameters, fasting blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels were measured. Histopathologic analysis and the levels of serum or hepatic biochemicals were assessed to evaluate diabetic liver injury and steatosis. The expression levels of lipogenic and gluconeogenic genes were determined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Activation of Akt was assessed by western blot analysis. Administration of OME significantly improved metabolic parameters in db/db mice, and also reduced diabetic liver injury and steatosis were observed by OME administration in db/db mice as confirmed by histopathologic and serum or hepatic biochemical analysis. Consistently, treatment of OME significantly increased Akt activation resulting in decreased expression levels of lipid-accumulation or gluconeogenesis-related genes. Similar results were observed in in vitro experiments using single extract of O. japonicus and using OME. OME has antidiabetic effects with increased insulin sensitivity, and may be a safe alternative therapy for the management of T2D.

Trichosanthes kirilowii is a traditional medicine used in East Asia for treating patients with diabetes, cancer-associated symptoms, hepatoprotective, coughing, breast abscesses, antibacterial, and antiviral activity.This study aimed to investigate the synergistic antibacterial activity of the methanol extract of Trichosanthes kirilowii (METK) with existing antimicrobial agents against oral pathogen.The synergistic effects and anti-biofilm of METK were evaluated against oral bacteria, either alone or with antibiotics, via broth dilution method and crystal violet assays.MIC/MBC values for METK, ampicillin, and gentamicin against all the tested bacteria ranged between 156-2500/313-5000 microg/mL, 0.25-64/0.25-64microg/mL, and 0.5-256/1-512 microg/mL, respectively.The synergistic effects were exhitited on METK with antibiotics against oral bacteria at fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) <0.5.Moreover, METK and antibiotics were found to synergistically reduce biofilm formation.1-6 hours of treatment with 1/2 MIC of METK with 1/2 MIC of antibiotics resulted from an increase of the rate of killing in units of CFU/mL to a greater degree than was observed with alone except S. sanguinis on ampicillin and S. criceti, S. anginosus, and S. gordonii on gentamicin.These results suggest that the methanol extract of Trichosanthes kirilowii (METK) is important in the antibacterial actions of oral pathogen agents.

The roots of Paeonia lactiflora Pallas are important crude drugs in Korean traditional medicine.A decoction of the dried root has been used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, dysmenorrhea, hepatitis, muscle cramping, inflammation, spasms, and fever and stimulate blood circulation.In this study, the combination effect of the ethanol extract of Paeonia lactiflora (PLE) was evaluated against oral bacteria, either alone or with antibiotics, via broth dilution method and checkerboard and time kill assay.In these results, MIC/MBC values for PLE against all the tested bacteria ranged between 250-2000/250-2000 microg/mL, for ampicillin 0.031-16/0.125-32microg/mL, gentamicin 2-256/4-512 microg/mL, erythromycin 0.008-32/0.016-64microg/mL, and vancomycin 0.5-64/1-128 microg/mL, respectively.Furthermore, the MIC and MBC were reduced to one half-four as a result of the combination of PLE with antibiotics.Six hours of treatment with 1/2 MIC of PLE with 1/2 MIC of antibiotics resulted from an increase of the rate of killing in units of CFU/mL to a greater degree than was observed with alone.These results suggest that the ethanol extract of Paeonia lactiflora (PLE) is important in the antibacterial actions of oral pathogen agents.

The cortex of Machilus thunbergii, which has been consumed as traditional herbal medicine for treatment of leg edema and abdominal distension and pain for a long period of time.In this study, the combination effect of M. thunbergii ethanol extract (MTEE) was evaluated against oral bacteria, either alone or with antibiotics, via broth dilution method and checkerboard and time kill assay.MIC/MBC values for MTEE against all the tested bacteria ranged between 12.5-50/50-200 microg/ mL, for ampicillin 0.0625-8/0.125-32microg/mL and for gentamicin 4-128/8-512 microg/mL respectively.Furthermore, the MIC and MBC were reduced to one half-eighth as a result of the combination of MTEE with antibiotics.1-6 hours of treatment with 1/2 MIC of MTEE with 1/2 MIC of antibiotics resulted from an increase of the rate of killing in units of CFU/mL to a greater degree than was observed with alone.These results suggest that the MTEE is important in the antibacterial actions of oral pathogens agents.

Drynaria fortunei (D. fortunei), widely used in traditional Korean medicine, is reportedly effective in treating inflammation, hyperlipidemia, bone fractures, oxidative damage, arteriosclerosis, rheumatism, and gynecological diseases. The objective of this study was to evaluate the antibacterial effects of the chloroform fraction of D. fortunei (DFCF) and assess the synergistic effects of DFCF with antibiotics against bacterial pathogens. This was carried out by calculating the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) and performing checkerboard dilution test and time-kill assays. The MICs/MBCs for DFCF, ampicillin, and gentamicin against all oral strains were >39-2,500/5,000 μg/mL, 0.25-64/0.25-64 µg/mL, and 0.5-256/1-512 µg/mL, respectively. DFCF exhibited the highest activity against the periodontic pathogens Prevotella intermedia and Porphylomonas gingivalis. DFCF in combination with ampicillin showed a strong synergistic effect against oral bacteria (fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) index ≤0.5), whereas on combining with gentamicin, it reduced the on half-eighth times than used alone (FICI ≤ 0.5). DFCF combined with ampicillin or gentamicin killed 100% of most tested bacteria within 3-4 h. The results of this study demonstrate the antimicrobial and synergistic activity of DFCF and antibiotics against oral pathogens.

Red ginseng is a well-known alternative medicine with anti-inflammatory activity. It exerts pharmacological effects through the transformation of saponin into metabolites by intestinal microbiota. Given that intestinal microflora vary among individuals, the pharmacological effects of red ginseng likely vary among individuals. In order to produce homogeneously effective red ginseng, we prepared probiotic-fermented red ginseng and evaluated its activity using a dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis model in mice. Initial analysis of intestinal damage indicated that the administration of probiotic-fermented red ginseng significantly decreased the severity of colitis, compared with the control and the activity was higher than that induced by oral administration of ginseng powder or probiotics only. Subsequent analysis of the levels of serum IL-6 and TNF-α, inflammatory biomarkers that are increased at the initiation stage of colitis, were significantly decreased in probiotic-fermented red ginseng-treated groups in comparison to the control group. The levels of inflammatory cytokines and mRNAs for inflammatory factors in colorectal tissues were also significantly decreased in probiotic-fermented red ginseng-treated groups. Collectively, oral administration of probiotic-fermented red ginseng reduced the severity of colitis in a mouse model, suggesting that it can be used as a uniformly effective red ginseng product.

The antibacterial activity of an extract and several fractions of Sophora flavescens (S. flavescens) root alone and in combination with antibiotics against oral bacteria was investigated by checkerboard assay and time-kill assay. The minimum inhibitory concentration/minimum bactericidal concentration (MIC/MBC) values for all examined bacteria were 0.313-2.5/0.625-2.5 μg/mL for the n-BuOH fraction, 0.625-5/1.25-10 μg/mL for the EtOAc fraction, 0.25-8/0.25-16 μg/mL for ampicillin, 0.5-256/1-512 μg/mL for gentamicin, 0.008-32/0.016-64 μg/mL for erythromycin, and 0.25-64/0.5-128 μg/mL for vancomycin. The n-butanol (n-BuOH) and ethyl acetate (EtOAc) fractions exhibited stronger antibacterial activity against oral bacteria than other fractions and extracts. The MICs and MBCs were reduced to between one half and one quarter when the n-BuOH and EtOAc fractions were combined with antibiotics. After 24 h of incubation, combination of 1/2 MIC of the n-BuOH fraction with antibiotics increased the degree of bactericidal activity. The present results suggest that n-BuOH and EtOAc extracts of S. flavescens root might be applicable as new natural antimicrobial agents against oral pathogens.

Emodin (3-methyl-1,6,8-trihydroxyanthraquinone), a natural anthraquinone compound, is an active compound derivative isolated from the rhizome of Rheum undulatum L, an herb widely used as a laxative in traditional Korean medicine. Emodin has been reported to have a variety of biological activities, such as anticancer, vasorelaxation, immunosuppressive, anti-inflammatory and wound healing properties. In this study, emodin was evaluated against 20 clinical isolates of MRSA, either alone or in combination with antibiotics. The emodin exhibited strong antibacterial activity against isolates MRSA with MICs/MBCs ranged between 64256/64-512 μg/mL, for ampicillin 64-512/128-1024 μg/mL, and for oxacillin 8-64/16-64 μg/mL. The combination of emodin plus oxacillin or ampicillin was reduced by ≥4-fold against isolates MRSA tested, evidencing a synergistic effect as defined by a FICI of ≤ 0.5. Furthermore, a time-kill study evaluating the growth of the tested bacteria was completely attenuated after 2-6 h of treatment with the 1/2 MIC of emodin, regardless of whether it was administered alone or with oxacillin (1/2 MIC) or ampicillin (1/2 MIC). In conclusion, emodin exerted synergistic effects when administered with oxacillin or ampicillin and the antibacterial activity and resistant regulation of emodin against clinical isolates of MRSA might be useful in controlling MRSA infections. Keywords— emodin, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, minimum inhibitory concentrations, minimum bactericidal concentrations, time-kill curves, fractional inhibitory concentration.

Background: The flower and flower buds of Sophora japonica L. have the same medicinal uses, with significant biological activity, in the treatment of bleeding hemorrhoids, hematuria, hematemesis, hemorrhinia, uterine or intestinal hemorrhage, metrorrhagia, leukorrhea, conjunctivitis, pyoderma, arteriosclerosis, hypertension, and dizziness. Methods: This study aimed to investigate the synergistic antibacterial activity with existing antimicrobial agents against oral pathogen. The synergistic effects and anti biofilm of 50% ethanol extract of (SJEE) were evaluated against oral bacteria, either alone or with antibiotics, via broth microdilution method, time-kill method, and crystal violet assay. Results: MIC/MBC values for SJEE, Ampicillin, Gentamicin, Erythromycin, and Vancomycin against all the tested bacteria ranged between 0.1254/0.5-16 mg/mL, 0.0313-16/0.125-32 μg/mL, 2-256/4-512 μg/mL, 0.00832/0.016-64 μg/mL, and 0.25-64/1-128 μg/mL, respectively. The synergistic effects were exhibited on SJEE with antibiotics against oral bacteria at Fractional Inhibitory Concentration Index (FICI)<0.5. Moreover, SJEE and antibiotics were found to synergistically reduce biofilm formation. 1-6 hours of treatment with 1/2 MIC of SJEE with 1/2 MIC of antibiotics resulted from an increase of the rate of killing in units of CFU/mL to a greater degree than was observed with alone. Conclusion: The SJEE was exerted a strong bactericidal effect in drug combinations against oral bacteria and biofilm formation. Abbreviations: SJEE: Sophora japonica Ethanol Extract; MICs: Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations; MBCs: Minimum Bactericidal Concentrations; CFU: Colony Forming Unit; FIC index: Fractional Inhibitory Concentration; FBC Index: Fractional Bactericidal Concentration Index Su-Mi Cha1, Jeong-Dan Cha2, Soon-Il Yun2,5*, EunJin Jang3 and Sung-Mi Choi4,5 1Department of Oral Microbiology and Institute of Oral Bioscience, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju, Republic of Korea 2Department of Food Science & Technology, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju, Republic of Korea 3Department of Dental Technology, Daegu Health College, Daegu, South Korea 4Department of Dental Hygiene, Daegu Health College, Daegu, South Korea 5Department of Dental Hygiene, Daegu Health College, Daegu, South Korea *Address for Correspondence Soon-Il Yun, Department of Food Science & Technology, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, Chonbuk National University, 664-14 Duckjin-Dong, Duckjin-Ku, Jeonju, Chonbuk, 561-756 Republic of Korea, Tel: +82-63-270-2566; Fax: +8263-270-4049; E-mail: siyun@jbnu.ac.kr Submission: 12 October, 2017 Accepted: 28 November, 2017 Published: 07 December, 2017 Copyright: © 2017 Cha SM, et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Research Article Open Access

Context: Red ginseng (heat-processed Panax ginseng) is a well-known alternative medicine with pharmacological antidiabetic activity. It exerts pharmacological effects through the transformation of saponin into metabolites by the intestinal microbiota. Given that intestinal conditions and intestinal microflora vary among individuals, the pharmacological effects of orally administered red ginseng likely may vary among individuals. Objective: To overcome this variation and produce homogeneously effective red ginseng, we evaluated the antidiabetic effects of probiotic-fermented red ginseng in a mouse model. Materials and methods: The antidiabetic efficacy of orally administered probiotic-fermented red ginseng was assessed in ICR mice after induction of diabetes using streptozotocin (170 mg/kg body weight). Samples were given orally for 8 weeks, and indicators involved in diabetic disorders such as body weight change, water intake, blood glucose, glucose tolerance and various biochemical parameters were determined. Results: Oral administration of probiotic-fermented red ginseng significantly decreased the level of blood glucose of about 62.5% in the fasting state and induced a significant increase in glucose tolerance of about 10.2% compared to the control diabetic mice. Additionally, various indicators of diabetes and biochemical data (e.g., blood glycosylated haemoglobin level, serum concentrations of insulin, and alpha-amylase activity) showed a significant improvement in the diabetic conditions of the mice treated with probiotic-fermented red ginseng in comparison with those of control diabetic mice. Discussion and conclusion: Our results demonstrate the antidiabetic effects of probiotic-fermented red ginseng in the streptozotocin-induced mouse diabetes model and suggest that probiotic-fermented red ginseng may be a uniformly effective red ginseng product.

Background: Sophora flavescens AITON (Leguminosae) is a typical traditional Korean medical herb considered to exhibit antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic effects, and is also used for the treatment of skin and mucosal ulcers, sores, diarrhea, gastrointestinal hemorrhage, arrhythmia, and eczema.Objective and design: This study examined the inhibitory effects of sophoraflavanone G (SF) of S. flavescens on the bacterial fibrillar protein, Antigen I/II (AgI/II)-N recombinant protein isolated from Streptococcus mutans(rAg I/II)-induced production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE(2)). The investigation was focused on whether SF could inhibit the production of proinflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin (PG) E2 as well as the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a, interleukin (IL)-6, nuclear factor (NF)-kappa B and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in rAgI/II-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells using Griess reagent, Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and Western blotting analysis.Results: SG significantly inhibited the production of NO and PGE(2) and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1 beta, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor alpha in Ag I/II-N-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, which were mediated by the down-regulation of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression. The SF inhibited the phosphorylation of I kappa B-alpha, nuclear translocation of p65, and subsequent activation of NF-kappa B in the rAgI/II-stimulated cells. In addition, the SF suppressed the rAgI/II-stimulated activation of ERK MAPK as well as the MAPK inhibitor significantly reduced the rAgI/II-induced production of NO and PGE(2).Conclusion: Collectively, we suggest that the SF inhibits the expression and production of inflammatory mediators by blocking the ERK MAPK mediated pathway and inhibiting the activation of NF-kappa B. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Metabolic syndrome including obesity, dyslipidemia and hypertension is a cluster of risk factors of cardiovascular disease. Fermentation of medicinal herbs improves their pharmacological efficacy. Red ginseng (RG), a widely used traditional herbal medicine, was reported with anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activity. Aim in the present study was to investigate that the effects of fermented red ginseng (FRG) on a high-fructose (HF) diet induced metabolic disorders, and those effects were compared to RG and losartan. Animals were divided into four groups: a control group fed a regular diet and tap water, and fructose groups that were fed a 60% high-fructose (HF) diet with/without RG 250 mg/kg/day or FRG 250 mg/kg/day for eight weeks, respectively. Treatment with FRG significantly suppressed the increments of body weight, liver weight, epididymal fat weight and adipocyte size. Moreover, FRG significantly prevented the development of metabolic disturbances such as hyperlipidemia and hypertension. Staining with Oil-red-o demonstrated a marked increase of hepatic accumulation of triglycerides, and this increase was prevented by FRG. FRG ameliorated endothelial dysfunction by downregulation of endothelin-1 (ET-1) and adhesion molecules in the aorta. In addition, FRG induced markedly upregulation of Insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1) and glucose transporter type 4 (Glut4) in the muscle. These results indicate that FRG ameliorates obesity, dyslipidemia, hypertension and fatty liver in HF diet rats. More favorable pharmacological effects on HF diet induced metabolic disorders were observed with FRG, compared to an equal dose of RG. These results showed that the pharmacological activity of RG was enhanced by fermentation. Taken together, fermentated red ginseng might be a beneficial therapeutic approach for metabolic syndrome.