Animal slaughter plans and related activities must not increase the number of hazards in meat. In their nature, these processes must reduce possible hazards to minimum or acceptable levels. This is a generally accepted concept worldwide; hence, authorities continue to develop regulations that seek to mitigate the scourge of meat hazards for consumer protection. The situation is similar with small wild ungulate meat, in which a hazard analysis plan needs developing to improve meat safety. This investigation follows a narrative review of articles published for a PhD program and other scholarly articles supporting the concept of a basic slaughter plan for small wild ungulate animals in South Africa. The findings of this investigation highlight the need to control hazards within one health concept plan, which should be implemented and propagated by establishing forums that will drive meat safety solutions in these communities. There should be a basic hygiene slaughter plan developed and endorsed by all members of the forum. The outcome must be the control of microbiological, chemical and physical hazards from farm-to-fork, and as part of a system imbedded in game meat policies and regulations.

Meat contamination by microorganisms could occur during numerous processes linked to game meat animal slaughter. These contaminants could pose a risk to product quality and consumer health. Contamination often occurs around the wound caused by shooting. Animal slaughter plants are given a responsibility to identify, evaluate and control the occurrence of hazards in their processing plant. To improve this control plan, the effectiveness of lactic (LA) and acetic acids (AA) for reducing the microbiological load directly around the wound was investigated. After killing by means of an aerial (helicopter) shotgun (n = 12) firing lead pellets and land-based rifle bullet shots (n = 36), samples of the flesh directly around the wounds of impala (Aepyceros melampus) were taken immediately after dressing (AD) before any treatment was conducted. Thereafter, at the step where carcasses are typically washed with potable water, the flesh directly around the wound was subjected to a wash with either ≈5 mL potable water (T1), 5% LA solution (T2) or 5% AA solution (T3) and then chilled overnight. Samples of the flesh directly around the wounds were also taken after chilling (AC). The aim of the study was to determine the effectiveness of each organic acid in reducing the microbiological load (total plate count; E. coli; coliforms and Salmonella) present in the flesh directly around the wounds of impala carcasses. The study found that shotgun pellets caused less body damage with fewer microorganisms recorded compared to samples from rifle-killed carcasses. LA reduced the occurrence of Salmonella during slaughter. The results of the other microorganisms revealed inconclusive outcomes on whether the application of water, 5% LA or 5% AA was effective in the reduction of the microbial organisms on the flesh directly around the wounds.

Processes of killing wild game meat animals could introduce toxic metals into the animal's meat, which subsequently may pose a risk of consumer exposure to toxins during ingestion. In most cases, toxic metals occur naturally in the environment and may be found in traces in different parts of a game meat animal. However, some of these metals are also introduced to meat animals by bullets used during the hunting and killing of game meat animals. These bullets are generally made from metals such as lead, arsenic, and copper, all of which have strictly regulated limits in food products including meat. Samples of helicopter-killed impala in the area around the bullet/pellets' wound (n = 9) and from animals killed by a single projectile (n = 9) were analysed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The type of bullet used influenced the mean concentration of some of these toxic metals (mg/Kg) in meat samples; helicopter killing resulted in the following levels of As (0.665, SD = 1.95); Cd (0.000, SD = 0.000); Pb (620.18, SD = 1247.6); and Hg (0.017 SD = 0.033) compared to single projectile killing that resulted in the following levels: As (0.123, SD = 0.221); Cd (0.008, SD = 0.021); Pb (1610.79, SD = 1384.5); and Hg (0.028, SD = 0.085). The number of samples per metal with levels above the EU products' limits were Pb = 18/18 samples from both killing methods, As = 2/18 samples from helicopter killing, Cd- = 1/18 from rifle killing and Hg = 0/18. To minimise the risks of toxic metals posed by bullets, the use of lead (Pb) free bullets should be encouraged, and the control of meat animal killing methods must always be performed, especially for meat contamination prevention.

Physical hazards, such as bullet particles and bone fragments, in wild meat could be introduced by processes applied whilst killing game meat animals. These hazards may pose a health risk to non-suspecting consumers and must therefore be identified, evaluated and removed from meat and meat products. The extent of dispersion of these hazards in carcasses has not been sufficiently investigated with respect to game meat safety. This study aims to describe and quantify the occurrence of these hazards in animals shot by aerial (helicopter) shotgun targeting the head and higher neck region (n = 12) and single-projectile/free-bullet rifle shots targeting the thorax region (n = 36) of impala killed for meat consumption. To quantify the occurrence, particle sizes and dispersion surface of bullet fragments and bone splinters in the forequarters, radiographs were taken from top to bottom (dorsal ventral) and from the side (lateral) in the sequence of the skull, neck and forequarters. A t-test (p < 0.05) was conducted to compare the association of averages from the killing methods with the occurrences of bullet fragments and bone splinters. Bullet particles and bone splinters of significant sizes were introduced by the killing methods adopted. The results show a high incidence of harmful bullet particle and bone splinter sizes from the rifle thorax shots (p = 0.005). The dispersion of both physical hazards could cover a wide distance of >332 mm between particles on hunted game meat animals. Game meat animal killing methods with a rifle targeting the chest cavity should be refined and implemented. These should include the selection of bullets less prone to fragmentation, and compliance with regulated game meat animal-killing protocols, including regulating the placement of shots to allow only head or high neck shots for game meat animals slaughtered/culled for human consumption.

The presence of toxic metals in harvested game meat is a cause for concern for public health and meat safety in general. Authorities and food safety agencies continue to develop guidelines and limits of the maximum allowable levels of toxic metals in food products. However, the situation is different for game meat products in developing countries, where a number of shortcomings have been identified. This includes a lack of game meat animal slaughter regulations, specific species' product limits that have not yet been established and the continued use of hunting or game meat animals' harvesting plans that could introduce the same toxic metals of concern. This review was conducted from English literature published between 2011 and 2021; it highlights the possible health effects and the shortcomings in the implementation of game meat safety production strategies for toxic metals (Arsenic, Lead, Cadmium and Mercury) in game meat animal production. Lead (Pb) remains the most significant threat for toxic metals contamination in game meat animals and the slaughter processes. In most developing countries, including in South Africa, the monitoring and control of these heavy metals in the game meat value chain has not yet been implemented.

Wild ungulate species provide a much-needed protein source to many communities in developed and developing countries. Frequently, these game meat animals are slaughtered, and the meat is unknowingly contaminated by microorganisms and released to the unsuspecting public. This review investigates the global usage of organic acids (lactic and acetic acids) as microbial decontamination strategies during slaughter. The results show that there is a more open-minded approach to adopting possible decontamination plans as a tool to improve meat safety during slaughter. Developed countries continue to adopt these strategies, while developing countries are lagging behind. While decontamination of carcasses can lead to a reduction of microbial load on these carcasses, this strategy must not be seen as a replacement of hygiene management during the animals' slaughter.

Illegal slaughter and release of the meat on disposal is commonly practiced in remote and rural areas of South Africa. It is fuelled by the high demand for meat, the ever available supply of communally farmed livestock, the entrenched local customs and practices, the absence or low and insufficient numbers of registered slaughter facilities in these areas, and entrepreneurial opportunities. In this study, a structured questionnaire was sent to all nine Veterinary Public Health (VPH) provincial offices in South Africa, to obtain an insight on how illegal slaughter was handled, and on the challenges of controlling those practices. All nine provincial offices participated in the survey. The results suggest that while illegal slaughter was not yet out of control, provincial offices were concerned about the growing trends of this phenomenon, especially in rural areas. Some of the constraints to register and legalise slaughter facilities reported by VPH offices included: the high cost of operating an abattoir, fragmented and complex legislation, and scant or inadequate understanding of the abattoir requirements by slaughter facility owners. An approach to address these constraints will require further in-depth research, including all stakeholders so as to try and find the optimal strategies to narrow the gap between legal and illegal slaughter in South Africa.

Background Globally, Taenia solium can cause cysticercosis in humans (including neurocysticercosis) and in pigs through ingestion of eggs and taeniasis in humans through ingestion of raw/undercooked pork contaminated with mature cysts. It is now recognised globally as one of the most prevalent food-borne parasitic diseases. The majority of cases have been reported in developing countries where consumption of food produced under unhygienic conditions is prevalent, exacerbated by lack of food safety education. The aim of this study was to determine the knowledge and practices of consumers towards pork safety in two districts of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, where T. solium cysticercosis is endemic in pigs and humans. Methods Three-hundred-and-sixty-one (361) participants were conveniently interviewed on consumer knowledge (harmfulness of T. solium cysticercosis, ability to identify cysts, trustworthiness of registered butcheries and legal requirements) and practices (storage of pork and method(s) of cooking pork safely) through a structured questionnaire. Chi-square for association of variables was used to compare differences in the districts. Results Overall, 73.1% of the study group from both districts agreed that pork forms an important part of their diet. Consumers (54.2%: 189/349) agreed that pork infected with T. solium cysts could be harmful, and 57.3% (188/328) indicated their inability to identify T. solium cysts in pork when slaughtered at home. Although 69.5% (234/352) trusted pork bought from butcheries, only 52.2% (187/358) were aware that butcheries must present a registration certificate in order to operate. This coincides with the fact that very few (< 10%) were aware of the legal requirements in terms of disease control, slaughter and food preparation. Most consumers (88.7%: 268/302) kept pork in the fridge and only 11.3% (34/302) kept it in a freezer (p = 0.02). Although not significantly different between the districts (p = 0.15), consumers in Alfred Nzo (71.4%: 152/213) and OR Tambo (61.2%: 74/12) mostly cooked pork as a stew, followed by braai/barbeque and frying or baking. This was in line with the fact that consumers in Alfred Nzo (79%: 147/186) and OR Tambo (80.8%: 120) preferred well-cooked pork; the main reason for this was the belief that cooking kills germs (43.6%: 121/277) followed by rendering the meat tasty (26.4%: 73/277). Conclusions Consumers surveyed in the two districts were somewhat aware that T. solium cysticercosis could be harmful, although some were not able to identify T. solium cysts in pork. They also lacked sufficient knowledge regarding butchery certification and other legal requirements related to disease control, slaughter and food preparation. Practices related to cooking have the potential to promote the transmission of human taeniasis and the fact that most respondents preferred stewed pork could be a positive sign, as the cysts are destroyed during the cooking process. Results from this study are useful for the development of a control and prevention strategy targeted towards consumers, and the creation of awareness of food safety, with special emphasis on T, solium cysticercosis.

Porcine and human cysticercosis, caused by the larval stage of tapeworm Taenia solium, is a zoonosis in southern Africa and known to be endemic in South Africa, mainly in Eastern Cape Province. No efforts to control or eradicate this parasite have been made, despite the increasing occurrence in most Eastern Cape districts, except for routine meat inspection at local abattoirs. The parasite poses a potentially serious agricultural problem, public health risk and economic loss amongst Eastern Cape smallholder pig production communities. The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of routine meat inspection for the detection of porcine cysticercosis in pigs from rural smallholder/subsistence production systems in Eastern Cape Province villages. The effectiveness of meat inspection, by registered meat inspectors, in the detection of pigs infected with T. solium cysts was assessed and compared with whole carcass dissection as the "gold standard" method. The commercial antigen enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (B158/B160 Ag-ELISA) kit screened all the slaughtered animals. The proportion of pigs found infected with T. solium cysts, as measured by meat inspection, was lower (5%, 9/180) than with carcass dissection (18.9%, 34/180) and B158/B60 Ag-ELISA test (21.6%, 38/176). Four out of 180 carcasses were heavily infested with T. solium cysts, evenly distributed throughout the carcasses, to a level impossible to enumerate. Of the remaining 176 carcasses, approximately 526 cysticerci, distributed at various anatomical regions of the pig, were counted during carcass dissection. Sites with higher cyst counts, such as the back and hind leg, do not form part of the normal meat inspection regime. The level of agreement (Kappa statistic) between dissection (gold standard) and meat inspection of the two districts was negative (-0.1955). There was a slight agreement in the Kappa statistic (0.0328) between dissection and B158/B60 Ag-ELISA. This study confirms that current meat inspection procedures alone are not sufficiently sensitive to detect all cases of porcine cysticercosis at the abattoirs and require modifications, or should be supplemented by other methods. A risk-based meat safety assurance system, such as HACCP, that considers specific food safety aspects before and after the abattoir (point of slaughter) should be followed. Before slaughter, aspects such as origin, husbandry practices and on-farm animal health control should be considered; after slaughter, the abattoir should inform the next entity in the supply chain of the limitations of meat inspections and the real meaning of an "Approval" stamp. New validated testing methods that can be routinely used should be developed, and government should develop policies and legislation that promotes a risk-based meat safety assurance system throughout the food supply chain.

The poultry abattoir industry continues to grow and contribute significantly to the gross domestic product in many countries. The industry expects working shifts of eight to eleven hours, during which workers are exposed to occupational hazards which include physical hazards ranging from noise, vibration, exposure to cold and ergonomic stress from manual, repetitive tasks that require force. A PubMed, Medline and Science Direct online database search, using specific keywords was conducted and the results confirmed that physical and ergonomic hazards impact on abattoir processing workers health, with harm not only to workers' health but also as an economic burden due to the loss of their livelihoods and the need for treatment and compensation in the industry. This review endeavours to highlight the contribution poultry processing plays in the development of physical agents and ergonomic stress related occupational diseases in poultry abattoir processing workers. The impact includes noise-induced hearing loss, increased blood pressure, menstrual and work related upper limb disorders. These are summarised as a quick reference guide for poultry abattoir owners, abattoir workers, poultry associations, occupational hygienists and medical practitioners to assist in the safer management of occupational health in poultry abattoirs.

With on-going changes in land use practices from conventional livestock farming to commercial, wildlife-based activities, the interface or interaction between livestock and wildlife is increasing. As part of the wildlife-based activities of ecotourism, breeding and hunting, game farmers are also exploring the utilisation of meat from hunted or harvested game. The expanding interface or increased interaction between livestock and wildlife increases the risk of disease incidence and the emergence of new diseases or the re-emergence of previously diagnosed diseases. The risk is not only related to domestic and wild animal health, but also to the occupational hazards that it poses to animal handlers and the consumers of game meat. This review endeavours to highlight the role that game plays in the spreading of zoonotic diseases to other animals and humans. Examples of zoonotic diseases that have occurred in wild animals in the past, their relevance and risk have been summarised and should function as a quick reference guide for wildlife veterinarians, ecologists, farmers, hunters, slaughter staff, processors and public health professionals.

Although the game industry is expanding in all areas, the most essential food safety management points in the supply chain of South African game meat has not yet been described. In order to determine the management points it was necessary to determine the supply chain and then to identify the most essential food safety management points. Information to better understand the supply chain and relevant food safety management aspects was obtained through a desk top study, observation of processes from farm to consumer in the local market as well as during export activities and analysis of questionnaire responses from game farmers, hunters, butcheries and municipalities. The description of essential food safety management points in the supply chain can assist policy-makers; law enforcers and the industry to establish and implement management programmes that will ensure a safe game meat product to the consumer.

The game meat industry is continuing to grow in South Africa. Several stakeholders are involved in the game meat supply chain and a high level of knowledge is necessary to ensure compliance with legislation and standards. It was therefore necessary to determine the level of knowledge of the stakeholders since this has not been determined before. Information regarding the extent ofstakeholders' knowledge and the possible impact on compliance to standards was obtained through a desk-top study and an analysis of questionnaire responsesfrom industry, consumers and relevant authorities. Results have shown that consumers have a specific expectation regarding the safe production of game meat. Limitations in the knowledge of the stakeholders have been identified. Understanding these limitations can assist policy-makers, law enforcers and the game meat industry in developing strategies to alleviate the problem. The result of this study may assist in providing consumers with game meat that is safe for human consumption.