Seeding is gaining popularity in global forestation for its scalability and cost-effectiveness, especially where nursery stock is limited. It enables rapid, large-scale forest establishment, even on remote or degraded sites, and allows control over species and genetic diversity. Seeding is cost-effective for inaccessible or low-productivity areas and is used in ecological restoration to boost biodiversity. Success depends on species, seed quality, timing, soil, and site management. It is best suited for areas where natural regeneration is infeasible, low-cost forestation is needed, sites are remote or difficult to access, or rapid resource control is required. Germination and establishment rates are generally low (average germination ~44%, establishment ~21%), with significant variability by species and site. Large-seeded, fast-germinating species perform better. Seed availability and quality are key challenges. Proper timing, storage, and site preparation are crucial, particularly for species with recalcitrant seeds. Methods include broadcast and direct placement, with drone seeding emerging for large projects. Higher seeding rates are needed for small seeds and broadcast methods. Climate change is increasing drought and heat stress, making moisture retention and microclimate management more important. Technological advances, like automation, seed treatments (coatings, biochar, mycorrhizal inoculation and encapsulation), and precision seeding, are improving outcomes. Combining seeding with planting can enhance diversity and success, but careful planning and ongoing management remain essential.

The European Nature Restoration Regulation stipulates the commitment of the European Union to restoration and regeneration of forests, but we still lack a clear understanding of what constitutes success in forest restoration. We made a holistic coupling of a literature search and a practitioner's survey across Europe, which revealed a literature-practitioners' trap related to the assessment of restoration success. A vast and distinct set of indicators is used in the scientific literature (n=129) and by forest practitioners' (n=66) to assess success, with a moderately low agreement between both groups even for the top ranked indicators (rank-biased overlap = 0.50). Survival rates, seedling growth and species composition were the only shared indicators in the top list of literature and practitioners'. Success assessment remains substantially linked to physical/structural indicators and at a less extent to composition/biodiversity. Socalled economic, social or environmental services indicators persists negligible. While the establishment of an EU environmental forest policy is still in progress, vast indicators sets and lack of consensus between science and practitioners' indicators downgrades European readiness to truly understand transformation through the restoration strategy. De-trapping forest restoration success assessment will require convergence among different actors and their place-based approaches on a harmonized top list of indicators and allocation of sufficient time in the assessments to truly comprehend success outcomes, namely those associated to socio-economics and biodiversity outcomes that goes much beyond the single planting at which forest restoration is very frequently allied. Integrated science-stakeholder on-the-ground initiatives can have a particular role on this front.

Changing disturbance regimes and uncertain recovery trajectories under global change have created a need for conceptual models to guide forest management within a sustainability framework. This conceptual article develops on operational framework for ecosystem memory in forest ecosystems. Conventional views of resilience may foster the misleading assumption that ecosystem development follows a fixed trajectory within the boundaries of the natural range of variation. However, climate change may transform resilience mechanisms, causing forest ecosystems to shift beyond their historical range of variation. Under such conditions, the concept of ecosystem memory offers a framework for analyzing and quantifying temporal system properties. The constraints inherited through memory patterns are themselves likely to be modified under changing environmental conditions. A valid interpretation of ecosystem memory requires a clear ontological understanding of memory components as material entities organized under temporal and spatial constraints. The human memory metaphor is an appealing entry point for understanding ecosystem memory but risks erroneously attributing semantic encoding and representational processes to ecological systems, where no such mechanisms exist. Based on a narrative synthesis of 39 publications, supplemented by an updated Web of Science search that identified 396 records, we develop an operational ecosystem-memory framework that distinguishes persistent ecological legacies from functionally active memory by linking ecological imprints, ecosystem engrams, and measurable ecosystem responses. The framework provides a basis for identifying and monitoring measurable legacy variables, including deadwood, retained trees, regeneration, soil properties, and refugial structures, in post-disturbance forest management.

This article provides an overview and economic explanation of global forest plantation development. It also presents factors influencing global forest plantation development and lists the usefulness of forest plantations, including their roles in the conservation of natural forests. Finally, it summarizes the direct impact of forest plantations on biodiversity and other ecological functions.

Wind disturbance and climate change increase the risk of major European spruce bark beetle (ESBB) outbreaks. In order to understand the drivers behind the spread, we used a combination of the Random Forest algorithm and logistic regression mixed modelling to generate robust results. We analysed tree and stand characteristics, level of infestation, and nearness to eight major blowdown areas from a summer storm in 2016 in two conservation areas in south-eastern Estonia, Karula National Park and Otepaa Nature Park. The two areas differ in forest site quality (tree growth conditions) and topographical features, spatial distribution of protected and managed patches, and management history, and were therefore analysed separately. Data collection, in 2020, was based on a network of transect-based circular plots surrounding the blowdowns. By the time of the inventory, four years after the storm, the wind-induced spread had largely come to a halt, with only a few freshly infested Norway spruce trees recorded. The study revealed that, besides the often-mentioned factors tree diameter and share of Norway spruce, intensity of initial infestation in the first 10 m outside the storm area was positively correlated with ESBB infestation probability in the surrounding forest in Karula, where forest cover is more contiguous and under more severe management restrictions. Conversely, distance to any type of open area and tree species diversity decreased infestation probability in Otepaa. Furthermore, trees in patches with average site quality class had a significantly higher infestation risk, compared to those in a low site quality class. Distance to the storm area was not a driver behind the outbreak, and neither did the number of infested trees in the initial storm area affect surrounding stands, at this stage. Differences in significance of factors for infestation probability between the two conservation areas were considerable, which hints at even higher complexity of Norway spruce vigour-bark beetle-climate relations at an international level. Since storm area infestation levels and vicinity did not directly affect spatial distribution of ESBB, but infestation levels in our study were nonetheless high, this suggests that research should focus on early detection and prevention strategies at the landscape scale. In that respect, further investigation is required into the role of tree species diversity, stand structural heterogeneity and growth conditions in reducing outbreak risk and favouring a fast recovery from disturbances.

IntroductionMatching restoration strategies to environmental conditions is essential for successful forest landscape restoration in Ethiopia, but remains challenging due to limited guidance.ObjectivesWe evaluated the performance of restoration strategies based on forest stand structure and biomass across varying soil, elevation, and climate conditions. We hypothesized that (1) fertile sites with favorable climates enhance restoration success, and (2) tending operations improve performance in fertile areas.MethodsUsing soil samples (0-10 cm) from 279 points in southern and central Ethiopia, and WorldClim climate data, we derived four environmental clusters through cluster analysis. We assessed forest structure attributes in plantations, woodlots (WL), boundary plantings (BP), and exclosures (EX) within these clusters.ResultsActive restoration strategies achieved top heights comparable to natural forests, which had the highest aboveground biomass (AGB). BP (57.75 m2/ha) and WL (25.55 m2/ha) had higher basal areas than EX with the lowest top height (approximately 6 m) and biomass. Actively restored sites had better soil conditions than the passive. Clusters differed by elevation, soil fertility (fert-mid-high; orga-fert), and texture (clay-precip; sandy-low). Forest structure attributes were consistently higher in active than passive restoration strategies across clusters. Fertility-linked clusters had higher structural attributes across restoration strategies. Plantations in clayey, high-precipitation areas had the highest top height, AGB, and carbon storage. Clusters showed moderate correlation with mapped soil groups.ConclusionsResults show that soil fertility and precipitation strongly influence restoration success. Additionally, soil groups offer limited guidance for site suitability. Finally, BP offer an opportunity to meet household wood needs.

Abstract Forest landscape restoration is a participatory process for setting objectives that should be explicitly stated and recognize the needs of local communities. Restoration technology should be appropriate to site and landscape conditions as well as socioeconomic and cultural contexts. This chapter focuses on establishing forests where they are currently lacking. The techniques discussed can also establish trees outside of forests or restore degraded forests. Topics include understanding and documenting initial conditions and monitoring outcomes. Passive regeneration techniques include natural regeneration, sometimes with assistance. Active techniques addressed cover direct seeding by hand or drones and planting. Quality plant material is critical to achieve adequate seedling survival; we survey advanced methods of genomics, molecular genetics, genetic engineering, and genome editing. Other topics include seed collection and seed orchards, nursery practices, seed zones, assisted migration, and planting designs. Site modification techniques considered are conventional mechanical site preparation, micro-catchments, mulching, water-absorbing gels, and biostimulants.

A rapidly changing climate is weakening the resilience of forest ecosystems through vitality loss of major native tree species, which reduces the ability of forests to deliver ecosystem services. Established invasive tree species (EITS) may take over the vacant space potentially preventing the regeneration of the preferred native tree species. This paper aims to investigate how expansion of these invasive non-native tree species can be addressed in a context of climate-smart forest management, considering alternatives to costly and often ineffective EITS control measures. We found that forest ecologists increasingly recognize that climate-smart forest management, in particular tree species diversification and close-to-nature forest management, can strengthen the resilience of forests against negative impacts by EITS. In the resulting resilient forest ecosystems, a more closed canopy may deprive EITS of their invasive nature, and EITS may contribute to climate change adaptation. This review proposes new pathways for forest management transcending the apparent incompatibility between the dominance of EITS and the adaptation capacity of forests and forest management to climate change. Adaptive measures to increase the resilience of forests to climate change may prevent the dominance of EITS. Under such conditions, useful functional traits of these tree species may even contribute to maintenance or enhancement of biodiversity, provisioning of ecosystem services and adaptation to climate change.

Global deforestation and forest degradation threaten the sustainability of natural and human systems. Forest landscape restoration, through active approaches such as plantations, woodlots, boundary planting, and agroforestry, and passive approaches like exclosures, presents an opportunity to mitigate adverse effects, enhance ecosystem service recovery, and associated benefits for livelihoods. Here, using different spatial scales, we compare the contribution of both approaches to the recovery of plant diversity in southern Ethiopia. Using forest inventory data (891 plots) from multi-aged stands, we estimated and compared alpha (alpha), beta (beta), and gamma (gamma) diversity in regeneration and tree layers between the approaches. We observed increasing alpha-diversity in the order grazing lands-active-passive-forest sites. beta-Diversity revealed similarity between passively restored sites and natural forests. gamma-Diversity was higher in active restoration for the regeneration layer, but passive restoration had higher gamma-diversity in the tree layer. For both approaches, gamma-diversity was consistently highest in intermediate-aged stands (10-20 years). Results highlight the potential of active restoration strategies to facilitate vegetation recovery in human-dominated landscapes, especially when management allows natural regeneration, while stand age variation may be associated with disturbance intensities for both approaches. Our results support a paradigm shift toward implementation of a mixture of these approaches in the landscapes to meet increasing human demands while restoring important ecosystem services like biodiversity. We recommend enhancing species diversity on restored sites to improve performance and ecosystem service recovery. On actively restored sites, we recommend protecting regenerated species; on passively restored sites, enrichment planting, increased protection, and sustainable utilization.

Trees that survive disturbances are important biological legacies that facilitate forests’ recovery and enhance their structural and species diversity, substantially contributing to the resilience of these ecosystems. The dynamic pattern of legacy syndromes sets the understudied aspects of survivors of wind disturbance into focus. Several factors at tree, stand, and landscape scales alter the susceptibility of the remnant trees, and affect their potential to recover and survive subsequent disturbances. The characteristics of the survivors interact with direct stress and mortality drivers such as changed environmental conditions and pressure by pests and pathogens. Climate change further enhances the post-storm vulnerability of the remaining stand. This literature review analyzes the impact of disturbance parameters (e.g., severity, seasonal timing) and characteristics of the affected forest (e.g., tree species composition, successional stage of a forest stand) on the conditions of survivors through post-windthrow stand development. We attempted to reveal the main agents and processes driving the fate of remnant trees and linked delayed mortality patterns to the main stand-scale wind disturbance regimes in Eurasian and North American boreal and temperate forests: (1) stand-replacing, (2) partially stand-replacing, and (3) fine-scale gap disturbance. We found that after stand-replacing wind disturbance, the spatial location of the remaining trees largely determines their onward fate, whereas these survivors are generally more susceptible to subsequent mortality compared to trees that survived less severe events. After partially stand-replacing wind disturbance, the structure of the remnant stand as well as characteristics of the individual remnant trees (e.g., species, age, size) largely determine their survival probability. Following a fine-scale gap disturbance, the trees at the gap edge are more likely to die, compared to the trees situated in the stand interior, but the mortality-causing processes usually operate on a longer time scale. Our findings contribute to the current knowledge on post-windthrow stand development and offer insights into temporal stability of these increasingly important biological legacies.

New terms have proliferated as international focus on forest condition surged because of the role forests play in climate change mitigation and adaptation. From umbrella concepts (e.g., forestation, nature-based solutions, and ecosystem restoration) to specific methods (e.g., forest landscape restoration, rewilding, and assisted migration), nuanced terms target different beginning conditions (non-forest, harvested, deforested, or degraded forest) and desired future conditions (forest cover, self-sustaining systems, ecological integrity). Human well-being may or may not be a relevant objective. Quality forest reproductive material is critical for the success of large-scale planting to meet current policy objectives and future needs as climate warming and increased intensity and frequency of extreme events add to reforestation backlogs embodied in the new terminology and attitudes toward forest management.

Wood production in peatland forests is often associated with management of site hydrology that aims to improve soil moisture status and stand growth. Silvicultural outcomes of ditching activities vary greatly among drained sites, therefore new data and modelling approaches are necessary for better understanding of forest growth dynamics on a tree-level and a long-term scale. A mixed-effects model estimating growth response to initial ditching performed 40 years ago in Ongassaare region (northeast Estonia) was developed using basal area increment data derived from ring-width series of 287 Scots pine trees from 39 stands. The model indicated that ditching response was up to around 800 mm(2) year 1 on average; this level of drainage-induced additional increment was reached 16 years after treatment. Pre-drainage tree diameter, mean stand diameter and radial growth rate were among the significant predictors, therefore the results suggest that tree size, stand growing stock and site quality or microsite conditions before the ditching are affecting post-drainage tree growth. Smaller trees experienced greater growth response; however larger trees responded to the treatment faster than smaller ones. Ditching therefore induced changes in stand structure by decreasing tree size variation. Ditching response was more pronounced in stands with smaller pre-drainage diameter, faster growing trees reached the maximum response values quicker. Trees closer to the drainage ditch responded slightly more intensively to changing site conditions, however, this relationship was significant in the case of a reference ditch (one of the ditches sur-rounding a forest stand, selected according to the topography of the landscape) but not the nearest one. Drained peatlands are very diverse in terms of pre-treatment site conditions, stand history and ditch network design, therefore additional data from extended network of sample plots would be necessary for updating the developed model to make it more applicable for further use (e.g., predicting forest growth and yield).

Clearcutting is a major forest regeneration method in hemiboreal forests that affects forest carbon (C) fluxes. However, there is a lack of knowledge about the immediate effects of clearcutting and subsequent recovery of C-balance of harvested stands. The eddy covariance (EC) method can be used to better understand forest ecosystems carbon dioxide (CO2) exchange by directly measuring net C and water fluxes. In a hemiboreal forest ecosystem C-fluxes were measured in a recently clearcut area with an EC system mounted atop a tower. The stand was clearcut in February 2019, harvesting residues and stumps retained on-site, and the stand left to regenerate naturally. From 15 November 2019 to 14 November 2020, net ecosystem exchange (NEE) results showed the clearcut was a C-source of 1.817 µmol m-2 s-1 (standard deviation 3.249). Average NEE varied with season; winter NEE was 1.136 µmol m-2 s-1, spring NEE was 1.393 µmol m-2 s-1, summer NEE was 1.929 µmol m-2 s-1, and autumn was NEE 2.811 µmol m-2 s-1. Daytime NEE during the summer months approached C-sink status that was offset by high nighttime C-source values, reflecting the balance between photosynthesis and respiration. C-uptake is sensitive to weather conditions, as well as vegetation development. Through long-term measurement, it is also possible to quantify effects of periods with different weather conditions, such as drought, extreme temperatures or precipitation.

Estimation of hydrological processes is critical to water resource management, water supply planning, ecological protection, and climate change impact assessment. Mountains in Central Asia are the major source of water for rivers and agricultural practices. The disturbance of mountain forests in the region has altered the hydrological processes and accelerated soil erosion, mudflow, landslides, and flooding. We used the SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) model calibrated and validated with remote sensing data to quantify the mountainous hydrological processes in the Aktash River watershed (ARW) of Uzbekistan, Central Asia. Simulations showed that the daily surface runoff and streamflow closely responded to daily precipitation. Groundwater discharge reached its maximum in winter because of snowmelt. The wet months were from July to December, and the dry months were from January to June. The magnitudes of the seasonal hydrological processes were in the following order: fall > summer > winter > spring for precipitation and surface runoff; summer > spring > fall > winter for evapotranspiration (ET); winter > spring > fall > summer for snowmelt; fall > winter > summer > spring for water yield and streamflow; and winter > fall > spring > summer for groundwater discharge. The Mann–Kendall statistical test revealed a significant increasing trend for the annual precipitation (τ = 0.45, p < 0.01) and surface runoff (τ = 0.41, p < 0.02) over the past 17 years from 2003 to 2019. Compared to rangeland, forested land decreased monthly and annual average surface runoff by 20%, and increased monthly and annual average groundwater recharge by about 5%. Agricultural land had much higher unit-area values (mm/km2/y) of ET, groundwater recharge, and water yield than those of urban, forest, and range lands. Our research findings provide useful information to farmers, foresters, and decision makers for better water resource management in the ARW, Central Asia, and other mountain watersheds with similar conditions.

Forest restoration has never been higher on policymakers' agendas. Complex and multi-dimensional arrangements across the urban-rural continuum challenge restorationists and require integrative approaches to strengthen environmental protection and increase restoration outcomes. It remains unclear if urban and rural forest restoration are moving towards or away from each other in practice and research, and whether comparing research outcomes can help stakeholders to gain a clearer understanding of the interconnectedness between the two fields. This study aims to identify the challenges and opportunities for enhancing forest restoration in both urban and rural systems by reviewing the scientific evidence, engaging with key stakeholders and using an urban-rural forest restoration framework. Using the Society for Ecological Restoration's International Principles as discussion topics, we highlight aspects of convergence and divergence between the two fields to broaden our understanding of forest restoration and promote integrative management approaches to address future forest conditions. Our findings reveal that urban and rural forest restoration have convergent and divergent aspects. We emphasise the importance of tailoring goals and objectives to specific contexts and the need to design different institutions and incentives based on the social and ecological needs and goals of stakeholders in different regions. Additionally, we discuss the challenges of achieving high levels of ecological restoration and the need to go beyond traditional ecology to plan, implement, monitor, and adaptively manage restored forests. We suggest that rivers and watersheds could serve as a common ground linking rural and urban landscapes and that forest restoration could interact with other environmental protection measures. We note the potential for expanding the creative vision associated with increasing tree-containing environments in cities to generate more diverse and resilient forest restoration outcomes in rural settings. This study underscores the value of integrative management approaches in addressing future forest conditions across the urban-rural continuum. Our framework provides valuable insights for policymakers, researchers, and decision-makers to advance the field of forest restoration and address the challenges of restoration across the urban-rural continuum. The rural-urban interface serves as a convergence point for forest restoration, and both urban and rural fields can benefit from each other's expertise.

Cover cropping is practiced in conservation agriculture to preserve soil and water resources, alleviate soil compaction, sequester organic carbon, and control weeds. Meanwhile, cover cropping is rarely used in forestry, probably due to the lack of awareness of this management practice. In this short essay, we discuss the concept of utilizing cover crops to prepare degraded lands for afforestation or reforestation projects. The benefits of this practice are similar to those in agriculture. The risks of this practice are mostly related to plant-plant interactions, and particularly, to the potential competition for resources with the target trees. As such, this practice should be implemented cautiously, to prevent adverse impacts on the forest system. Also, attention should be paid to ensure the delivery of ecosystem services and functions by the target land. Further, the co-use of complementary practices may be considered to accelerate the success rate of cover cropping in degraded lands designated for afforestation and reforestation. Among these practices, application of soil additives, such as composts, manures, and biochars, may be useful in increasing soil concentrations of organic carbon and nutrients, thus improving soil quality and fertility. Additional complementary active practices may be the direct seeding or planting of nurse shrubs and trees, as well as the inoculation of soil surface with biocrust slurries, aimed to increase ecosystem complexity by forming a multi-story vegetation structure. Recommendations and guidelines for implementing cover crops in forestry should be site-specific and case-dependent, and consider both the desired benefits and potential risks.

The study area is in the Järvselja Training and Experimental Forest Centre, Estonia. The conservation of Järvselja old-growth forest started in 1924 when the area was excluded from all management activities and left to natural development. The aim of this study is to analyse the methods for calculating single tree height, tree stem lateral surface area, tree volume and carbon content for standing live trees, standing dead trees and for downed deadwood in old-growth forests. The study used the data of 6205 live trees, 1119 snags, 270 standing dead trees and 2983 deadwood trunks from the measured area. The most abundant tree species in Järvselja old-growth forest were Norway spruce and linden. During the last hundred years, the number of dominating tree species has increased slightly. The standing volume of birch, common aspen and Scots pine have been declining while for linden and black alder it has been increasing. In the comparison of tree height curves, the best results were obtained with the Näslund function, however, the Chapman-Richards function with fitting showed slightly better results for two tree species.

Information on the initial effects of a novel coronavirus, COVID-19, during 2020 on forests in Canada and the United States was derived from existing published studies and reports, news items, and policy briefs, amplified by information from interviews with key informants. Actions taken by governments and individuals to control the spread of the virus and mitigate economic impacts caused short-term disruptions in forest products supply chains and accelerated recent trends in consumer behavior. The COVID-19 containment measures delayed or postponed forest management and research; a surge in visitation of forests near urban areas increased vandalism, garbage accumulation, and the danger of fire ignitions. Forests and parks in remote rural areas experienced lower use, particularly those favored by international visitors, negatively affecting nearby communities dependent upon tourism. Physical distancing and isolation increased on-line shopping, remote working and learning; rather than emerging as novel drivers of change, these actions largely accelerated existing trends. On-line shopping sales had a positive effect on the packaging sector and remote working had a negative effect on graphic paper manufacturing. More time at home and low interest rates increased home construction and remodeling, causing historically high lumber prices and localized material shortages. The response to the pandemic has shown that rapid social change is possible; COVID-19 presents a once in-a-lifetime opportunity to shift the global development paradigm toward greater sustainability and a greener, more inclusive economy, in which forests can play a key role. In both Canada and the United States, the notion of directing stimulus and recovery spending beyond meeting immediate needs toward targeting infrastructure development has momentum.