West Nile is a mosquito-borne disease transmitted by Culex spp. mosquitoes and is widely distributed throughout the Continental United States. The causative agent is the West Nile virus (WNV); Family Flaviviridae Genus Orthoflavivirus. However, Miami-Dade County, a subtropical region with abundant populations of Cx. quinquefasciatus and Cx. nigripalpus, has not experienced sustained WNV transmission. This integrative review examines ecological, climatic, and surveillance determinants of WNV transmission in Miami-Dade County to understand why WNV cases remain low despite abundant vector populations. A theme-based PubMed search used Boolean combinations of terms related to WNV, Cx. quinquefasciatus, Cx. nigripalpus, St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV), avian hosts and migration, climate, urbanization, and Florida/Miami-Dade County. Typically, reported human WNV cases in Florida are concentrated in northern and central regions, whereas Miami-Dade County experiences intermittent activity. However, limited human cases should not be interpreted as evidence that local WNV circulation is absent. Rather, available evidence of WNV activity across mosquito, avian, and human surveillance streams does exist; however, actual burden may not be fully captured. Miami-Dade County, therefore, represents an ecological setting where abundant vectors do not necessarily translate into high WNV burden. As climate change and urbanization reshape avian and vector ecology, strengthening integrated entomological, epidemiological, and avian surveillance will be essential for anticipating and mitigating future WNV risk.

Mosquito-borne diseases are a major public health issue. The USA has experienced mosquito-borne disease outbreaks, including West Nile virus, Zika, dengue, and malaria, highlighting widespread risk across the country. In the USA, exposure to mosquito vectors primarily occurs outdoors. Individuals experiencing unsheltered homelessness are particularly vulnerable to mosquito-borne diseases due to their increased exposure to mosquito vectors, limited access to healthcare, and high prevalence of underlying conditions. This review aims to examine the literature on mosquito-borne disease infections among individuals experiencing homelessness in the USA between 1999 and 2024. Our search strategy used Boolean methods on PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science to select relevant publications. Two queries were used: the first query focused on individuals experiencing homelessness and mosquito-borne diseases, and the second one focused on epidemiological analyses of mosquito-borne disease outbreaks in the USA. Only studies reporting at least one infection among individuals experiencing homelessness were included. Our search resulted in the identification of 347 studies. After screening them, eight were ultimately included in this review. Half of the studies identified West Nile virus among individuals experiencing homelessness, and the other half reported cases of malaria. These studies show that individuals who spend more time outdoors, including individuals experiencing homelessness, may be at a greater risk of MBDs compared to the general population. However, the full extent of mosquito-borne disease exposure among individuals experiencing homelessness remains unclear. With climate change and globalization, there is a consensus in the literature showing an increasing risk of mosquito-borne disease transmission in the next decades, and we have already started to witness this increasing trend. Moreover, the USA is experiencing a steep increase in the overall nationwide homeless population. Therefore, we argue that developing policies aimed at providing homeless populations with housing during mosquito-borne disease outbreaks could be instrumental in protecting this segment of the population and promoting health equity.

The dispersal of Aedes aegypti is influenced by anthropogenic features of urban environments and climatic factors. Miami-Dade County is undergoing rapid urban expansion, creating favorable conditions that support the proliferation of Ae. aegypti. In response to this heightened entomological risk and the continued occurrence of dengue transmission, strengthened vector control programs are essential. Effective mosquito control requires a detailed understanding of vector dispersal ecology. In this study, we aimed to estimate the dispersal parameters of local Ae. aegypti populations in two urban environments in Miami-Dade County. This dispersal study was conducted using rhodamine B self-marking mark–capture procedures. The self-marking unit consists of a rhodamine B sugar feeding apparatus for adult marking, an ovicup containing rhodamine B solution for larval marking, and CO2 lures. Capture was performed using BG-sentinel traps baited with CO2. Redlands and Opa-Locka, representing contrasting settings in population density, vegetation, and breeding habitats, were selected as the study sites. Dispersal capability, including distance traveled [minimum distance traveled (MinDT), maximum distance traveled (MaxDT), and mean distance traveled (MDT)] and flight range (FR) were calculated, and environmental factors influencing the captures of marked Ae. aegypti were analyzed. A total of 216 and 36 marked specimens were captured in Redlands and Opa-Locka, respectively. The higher collections in Redlands were associated with higher vegetation coverage and the presence of a tire yard, while daily precipitation was negatively associated with marked specimen counts. The overall dispersal parameters were lower in an agricultural area in the suburban city of Redlands [MinDT = 10.07 m, MaxDT = 144.28 m, MDT = 63.65 m, 50

BACKGROUND:The Attractive Targeted Sugar Bait (ATSB) is a new malaria outdoor vector control tool targeting sugar-feeding behaviours of vector mosquitoes. In Mali, a two-year open-label two-arm cluster randomised controlled trial compared the efficacy and safety of ATSB plus insecticide treated mosquito nets (ITN) versus ITN alone on malaria burden. METHODS:76 clusters were formed, of which 38 were randomly allocated to the intervention. Cohort studies and household surveys were performed to assess clinical malaria incidence (primary outcome) in children aged 5 to 14 years and malaria infection prevalence in individuals aged 6 months or older, respectively. Primary analyses were performed on an intention-to-treat basis. The trial was designed to detect a minimum 30% reduction in the two outcomes over a two-year period with a power of at least 80%. The trial is registered at ClinicalTrial.gov (NCT04149119). FINDINGS:The proportion of sleeping buildings with at least 2 ATSB ranged between 70% and 80%. Coverage of ATSB in good condition was lower (50% or less). Over the two-year trial period, the clinical malaria incidence rate in the control and intervention arm was 0.726 and 0.660 cases per person-year, respectively, with no statistical evidence for an intervention effect (Incidence Rate Ratio (IRR) = 0.90; 95%CI 0.77, 1.05; p = 0.188). Malaria infection prevalence was approximately 37% in both arms (Odds Ratio (OR) = 0.96; 95%CI 0.76, 1.21; p = 0.729). In clusters with coverage of stations in good condition above 80%, there was evidence for a 26% reduction in malaria incidence compared to control clusters after controlling for confounders (adjusted IRR = 0.74; 95%CI 0.61, 0.90; p = 0.002). INTERPRETATION:Overall, the trial did not demonstrate evidence of additional protection against malaria of ATSB compared to using ITN alone. Suboptimal coverage and maintenance of ATSB in good condition in the field may explain the lack of an intervention effect.

Attractive targeted sugar baits (ATSBs) have the potential to significantly reduce infective female Anopheles mosquitoes in arid areas, such as in Northern Mali. Malaria is epidemic in the north due to the limited viability of Anopheles species in the desert climate. The goal of this study was to determine of the effect of ATSB on the number of older female An. gambiae and on the number of sporozoite-positive females in villages in northern Mali. Villages were located in the north of Mali. In this study, 5677 ATSB stations were deployed, two on each home, in ten villages during late July and early August 2019. Ten villages served as controls. After a pre-treatment monitoring period in July, An. gambiae populations were monitored again from August to December using CDC-UV light traps, pyrethrum spray catches (PSC), and human landing catches (HLC). Mosquitoes were dissected to estimate their age, while ELISA detected sporozoite positivity. The monthly entomological inoculation rates (EIRs) were calculated for HLC indoors and outdoors. Data from villages were compared using t-tests, while bait station weighted density versus amount of collected females was checked with a Pearson’s correlation. A total of 2703 female An. gambiae were caught from treated villages, 4582 from control villages, a 41.0

Background Estimates of the spatiotemporal distribution of different mosquito vector species and the associated risk of transmission of arboviruses are key to design adequate policies for preventing local outbreaks and reducing the number of human infections in endemic areas. In this study, we quantified the abundance of Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti and the local transmission potential for three arboviral infections at an unprecedented spatiotemporal resolution in areas where no entomological surveillance is available. Methods We developed a computational model to quantify the daily abundance of Aedes mosquitoes, leveraging temperature and precipitation records. The model was calibrated on mosquito surveillance data collected in 115 locations in Europe and the Americas between 2007 and 2018. Model estimates were used to quantify the reproduction number of dengue virus, Zika virus, and chikungunya in Europe and the Americas, at a high spatial resolution. Findings In areas colonised by both Aedes species, A aegypti was estimated to be the main vector for the transmission of dengue virus, Zika virus, and chikungunya, being associated with a higher estimate of R0 when compared with Aalbopictus. Our estimates highlighted that these arboviruses were endemic in tropical and subtropical countries, with the highest risks of transmission found in central America, Venezuela, Colombia, and central-east Brazil. A non-negligible potential risk of transmission was also estimated for Florida, Texas, and Arizona (USA). The broader ecological niche of A albopictus could contribute to the emergence of chikungunya outbreaks and clusters of dengue autochthonous cases in temperate areas of the Americas, as well as in mediterranean Europe (in particular, in Italy, southern France, and Spain). Interpretation Our results provide a comprehensive overview of the transmission potential of arboviral diseases in Europe and the Americas, highlighting areas where surveillance and mosquito control capacities should be prioritised. Funding EU and Ministero dell'Universit & agrave; e della Ricerca, Italy (Piano Nazionale di Ripresa e Resilienza Extended Partnership initiative on Emerging Infectious Diseases); EU (Horizon 2020); Ministero dell'Universit & agrave; e della Ricerca, Italy (Progetti di ricerca di Rilevante Interesse Nazionale programme); Brazilian National Council of Science, Technology and Innovation; Ministry of Health, Brazil; and Foundation of Research for Minas Gerais, Brazil

Background Malaria outbreaks have sporadically occurred in the United States, with Anopheles quadrimaculatus serving as the primary vector in the eastern region. Anopheles crucians , while considered a competent vector, has not been directly implicated in human transmission. Considering the locally acquired Plasmodium vivax cases in Sarasota County, Florida (7 confirmed cases), Cameron County, Texas (one confirmed case), and Maryland (one confirmed case) in the summer of 2023. The hypothesis of this study is that major cities in the United States harbour sufficient natural populations of Anopheles species vectors of malaria, that overlap with human populations that could support local transmission to humans. The objective of this study is to profile the most abundant Anopheles vector species in Miami-Dade County, Florida— An. crucians and An. quadrimaculatus . Methods This study was based on high-resolution mosquito surveillance data from 2020 to 2022 in Miami-Dade County, Florida. Variations on the relative abundance of An. crucians and An. quadrimaculatus was assessed by dividing the total number of mosquitoes collected by each individual trap in 2022 by the number of mosquitoes collected by the same trap in 2020. In order to identify influential traps, the linear distance in meters between all traps in the surveillance system from 2020 to 2022 was calculated and used to create a 4 km buffer radius around each trap in the surveillance system. Results A total of 36,589 An. crucians and 9943 An. quadrimaculatus were collected during this study by the surveillance system, consisting of 322 CO 2 -based traps. The findings reveal a highly heterogeneous spatiotemporal distribution of An. crucians and An. quadrimaculatus in Miami-Dade County, highlighting the presence of highly conducive environments in transition zones between natural/rural and urban areas. Anopheles quadrimaculatus , and to a lesser extent An. crucians , pose a considerable risk of malaria transmission during an outbreak, given their high abundance and proximity to humans. Conclusions Understanding the factors driving the proliferation, population dynamics, and spatial distribution of Anopheles vector species is vital for implementing effective mosquito control and reducing the risk of malaria outbreaks in the United States.

This is the introductory paper to the special issue "Merging ecology and control of vectors as a strategy to reduce zoonotic risks: an introduction to the Special Issue"

In Mali, malaria vector control relies mostly on long-lasting insecticidal nets and indoor residual spraying (IRS). From 2008 to 2016, an IRS program was implemented in the district of Koulikoro. After a significant reduction in malaria indicators, IRS was stopped in 2016. This study evaluated the effect of IRS withdrawal on entomological parameters of malaria transmission and incidence in children aged 6 months to 10 years in the district of Koulikoro. Entomological parameters of malaria transmission during the last year of IRS implementation in 2016 were compared with those obtained 2 years after IRS withdrawal in 2018 in two villages of Koulikoro. Mosquito vectors were collected by mouth aspiration and pyrethrum spray catches in the villages to monitor these transmission parameters. A sharp increase (10.8 times higher) in vector abundance after IRS withdrawal was observed. The infection rate of Anopheles gambiae sensu lato to Plasmodium falciparum increased from zero during IRS implementation to 14.8% after IRS withdrawal. The average entomological inoculation rate, which was undetectable before, was 1.22 infected bites per person per month 2 years after IRS was withdrawn, and the cumulative malaria incidence rate observed after IRS was 4.12 times (15.2% versus 3.7%) higher than that observed in 2016 in the villages before IRS withdrawal. This study showed a resurgence of malaria transmission and incidence in the Koulikoro health district after IRS was withdrawn. Thus, to manage the potential consequences of malaria transmission resurgence, alternative approaches are needed when stopping successful malaria control interventions.

Purpose of Review Mosquito-borne diseases are a serious concern in Europe since the proliferation of invasive mosquito species increases the risk of epidemics. Aedes spp. (Diptera: Culicidae) are among the most dangerous mosquito vectors in Europe. Among Aedes spp., less attention has been paid to the North American invasive species, Aedes atropalpus and Aedes triseriatus, although these species are vectors of serious diseases . This article aims to provide information about the current status and prospective of these species in Europe. Recent Findings While the presence of Ae . atropalpus in the European continent is still debated, Ae. triseriatus is no longer present in the European continent, but accidental introductions have been recently reported. Nevertheless, the climatic changes and global market increase the possibility of introduction of North American Aedes species in Europe. Summary The present article contains a brief overview of the biology, ecology, and vector competence of these two mosquito vectors, outlining their potential to invade new areas and medical importance. We highlighted some bioecological traits that need to be considered to design surveillance programs tailored for these species. Lastly, research challenges aimed to improve basic knowledge and control programs targeting these species are presented.

Aedes aegypti is one of the most dominant mosquito species in the urban areas of Miami-Dade County, Florida, and is responsible for the local arbovirus transmissions. Since August 2016, mosquito traps have been placed throughout the county to improve surveillance and guide mosquito control and arbovirus outbreak response. In this paper, we develop a deterministic mosquito population model, estimate model parameters by using local entomological and temperature data, and use the model to calibrate the mosquito trap data from 2017 to 2019. We further use the model to compare the Ae. aegypti population and evaluate the impact of rainfall intensity in different urban built environments. Our results show that rainfall affects the breeding sites and the abundance of Ae. aegypti more significantly in tourist areas than in residential places. In addition, we apply the model to quantitatively assess the effectiveness of vector control strategies in Miami-Dade County.

Abstract Los Angeles County, California, is one of the areas most affected by arboviruses in the continental United States, reporting the second highest number of West Nile human cases in the nation and one of the highest numbers of imported dengue cases. Culex quinquefasciatus and Aedes aegypti are primary vectors of West Nile and dengue viruses, respectively. Both species are present and abundant in Los Angeles County, creating fertile grounds for arbovirus outbreaks. In this study, we aim to provide a comprehensive assessment of environmental and socio-economic features associated with the presence and abundance of Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus in Los Angeles County, California. To explore these associations, we leveraged mosquito surveillance data at fine spatial resolution that comprises 1,652 observations for 171 traps. We performed a Principal Component Analysis to reduce the dimensionality of the environmental and socio-economic data and developed a zero-inflated negative binomial model. Our results show that the presence of Cx. quinquefasciatus and Ae. aegypti in Los Angeles County is not associated with temperature, while it is associated with component identifying younger, more Hispanic, poorer, densely populated areas with less vegetation. The association with vegetation is particularly important for Ae. aegypti. On the other hand, when mosquito species are present, their abundance is significantly associated with temperature and differs by the month of the year. Moreover, the abundance of Cx. quinquefasciatus is negatively associated with components identifying areas with higher income, more home-value inequality, larger shares of both older and younger population, and lower vegetation; on the other hand, the relative abundance of Ae. aegypti is negatively associated with vegetation and presence of surface water. Our study provides valuable insights into the environmental and socio-economic characteristics allowing the proliferation of Cx. quinquefasciatus and Ae. aegypti. Enhancing mosquito surveillance and control in areas where these joint distributions of identified characteristics create suitable conditions for mosquito proliferation could improve arbovirus outbreak preparedness and response, as well as promote health equity.

The diel biting activity of Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti (L) populations was extensively investigated in the early 1900s to gain more information on the biology of Ae. aegypti, and this information was used to devise effective approaches to controlling populations of this species and protect the human population from widespread arbovirus outbreaks. However, few contemporary studies are available regarding the diel activity patterns of Ae. aegypti. To assess the diel activity patterns of Ae. aegypti in southern Florida and Texas, we conducted 96-h uninterrupted mosquito collections once each month from May through November 2019 in Miami, Florida, and Brownsville, Texas, using BG-Sentinel 2 Traps. The overall diel activity pattern in both cities was bimodal with morning and evening peak activity between 7:00 and 8:00 and between 19:00 and 20:00. There were significant daily, monthly, seasonal, and site-specific differences in activity patterns, but these differences did not affect the overall peak activity times. These differences suggest daily, monthly, seasonal, and site-specific variations in human exposure to Ae. aegypti. Our observations can be used in planning and executing Ae. aegypti vector control activities in southern Florida and southern Texas, specifically those targeting the adult mosquito populations.

ABSTRACT. This article highlights over a decade of signature achievements by the West Africa International Centers for Excellence in Malaria Research (WA-ICEMR) and its partners toward guiding malaria prevention and control strategies. Since 2010, the WA-ICEMR has performed longitudinal studies to monitor and assess malaria control interventions with respect to space-time patterns, vector transmission indicators, and drug resistance markers. These activities were facilitated and supported by the Mali National Malaria Control Program. Research activities included large-scale active and passive surveillance and expanded coverage of universal long-lasting insecticide-treated bed nets and seasonal malaria chemoprevention (SMC). The findings revealed substantial declines in malaria occurrence after the scale-up of control interventions in WA-ICEMR study sites. WA-ICEMR studies showed that SMC using sulfadoxine‐pyrimethamine plus amodiaquine was highly effective in preventing malaria among children under 5 years of age. An alternative SMC regimen (dihydroartemisinin plus piperaquine) was shown to be potentially more effective and provided advantages for acceptability and compliance over the standard SMC regimen. Other findings discussed in this article include higher observed multiplicity of infection rates for malaria in historically high-endemic areas, continued antimalarial drug sensitivity to Plasmodium falciparum, high outdoor malaria transmission rates, and increased insecticide resistance over the past decade. The progress achieved by the WA-ICEMR and its partners highlights the critical need for maintaining current malaria control interventions while developing novel strategies to disrupt malaria transmission. Enhanced evaluation of these strategies through research partnerships is particularly needed in the wake of reported artemisinin resistance in Southeast Asia and East Africa.

Vector-borne diseases are a major burden to public health. Controlling mosquitoes is considered the most effective way to prevent vector-borne disease transmission. Mosquito surveillance is a core component of integrated vector management, as surveillance programs are often the cornerstone for the development of mosquito control operations. Two traps are the most commonly used for the surveillance of adult mosquitoes: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention miniature light trap (CDC light trap) and BG-Sentinel trap (BioGents, Regensburg, Germany). However, despite the importance of the BG-Sentinel trap in surveillance programs in the United States, especially in the Southern states, its effectiveness in consistently and reliably collecting mosquitoes in rural and natural areas is still unknown. We hypothesized that BG-Sentinel and CDC light traps would be more attractive to specific mosquito species present in rural and natural areas. Therefore, our objective was to compare the relative abundance, species richness, and community composition of mosquitoes collected in natural and rural areas by BG-Sentinel and CDC light traps. Mosquitoes were collected from October 2020 to March 2021 using BG-Sentinel and CDC light traps baited with dry ice, totaling 105 trap-nights. The BG-Sentinel traps collected 195,115 mosquitoes comprising 23 species from eight genera, and the CDC light traps collected 188,594 mosquitoes comprising 23 species from eight genera. The results from the permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) and generalized estimating equation model for repeated measures indicate the BG-Sentinel and CDC light traps had similar sampling power. Even though BG-Sentinel traps had a slightly better performance, the difference was not statistically significant indicating that both traps are suitable to be used in mosquito surveillance in rural and natural areas.

There are limited data on why the 2016 Zika outbreak in Miami-Dade County, Florida was confined to certain neighborhoods. In this research, Aedes aegypti, the primary vector of Zika virus, are studied to examine neighborhood-level differences in their population dynamics and underlying processes. Weekly mosquito data were acquired from the Miami-Dade County Mosquito Control Division from 2016 to 2020 from 172 traps deployed around Miami-Dade County. Using random forest, a machine learning method, predictive models of spatiotemporal dynamics of Ae. aegypti in response to meteorological conditions and neighborhood-specific socio-demographic and physical characteristics, such as land-use and land-cover type and income level, were created. The study area was divided into two groups: areas affected by local transmission of Zika during the 2016 outbreak and unaffected areas. Ae. aegypti populations in areas affected by Zika were more strongly influenced by 14- and 21-day lagged weather conditions. In the unaffected areas, mosquito populations were more strongly influenced by land-use and day-of-collection weather conditions. There are neighborhood-scale differences in Ae. aegypti population dynamics. These differences in turn influence vector-borne disease diffusion in a region. These results have implications for vector control experts to lead neighborhood-specific vector control strategies and for epidemiologists to guide vector-borne disease risk preparations, especially for containing the spread of vector-borne disease in response to ongoing climate change.

The Mali National Malaria Control Program (NMCP) recently established a phased set of goals for eliminating malaria in Mali by 2030. Over the past decade, the scale-up of NMCP-led malaria control interventions has led to considerable progress, as evidenced by multiple malariometric indicators. The West Africa International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research (WA-ICEMR) is a multidisciplinary research program that works closely with the NMCP and its partners to address critical research needs for malaria control. This coordinated effort includes assessing the effectiveness of control interventions based on key malaria research topics, including immune status, parasite genetic diversity, insecticide and drug resistance, diagnostic accuracy, malaria vector populations and biting behaviors, and vectorial capacity. Several signature accomplishments of the WA-ICEMR include identifying changing malaria age demographic profiles, testing innovative approaches to improve control strategies, and providing regular reporting on drug and insecticide resistance status. The NMCP and WA-ICEMR partnership between the WA-ICEMR and the NMCP offers a comprehensive research platform that informs the design and implementation of malaria prevention and control research programs. These efforts build local expertise and capacity for the next generation of malaria researchers and guide local policy, which is crucial in sustaining efforts toward eliminating malaria in West Africa.

Invasive mosquito vector species have been inadvertently transported to new areas by humans for decades. Strong evidence supports that monitoring maritime, terrestrial, and aerial points of entry is an essential part of the effort to curb the invasion and establishment of invasive vector mosquito species. Miami-Dade County, Florida is an important operational hub for the cruise ship industry and leisure boats that routinely visit nearby areas in the Caribbean, and freight cargo ships transporting goods from Miami-Dade to Caribbean countries and vice versa. To deal with the increasing public health concern, we hypothesized that mosquito surveillance in small- and medium-sized maritime ports of entry in Miami-Dade is crucial to allow the early detection of invasive mosquito species. Therefore, we have selected 12 small- and medium-sized maritime ports of entry in Miami-Dade County with an increased flow of people and commodities that were not covered by the current mosquito surveillance system. Collection sites were comprised of two distinct environments, four marinas with international traffic of leisure boats, and eight maintenance and commercial freight cargo ship ports. Mosquitoes were collected weekly at each of the 12 collection sites for 24 hours for 6 weeks in the Spring and then for 6 additional weeks in the Summer using BG-Sentinel traps. A total of 32,590 mosquitoes were collected, with Culex quinquefasciatus and Aedes aegypti being the most abundant species totaling 19,987 and 11,247 specimens collected, respectively. Our results show that important mosquito vector species were present in great numbers in all of the 12 maritime ports of entry surveyed during this study. The relative abundance of Cx. quinquefasciatus and Ae. aegypti was substantially higher in the commercial freight cargo ship ports than in the marinas. These results indicate that even though both areas are conducive for the proliferation of vector mosquitoes, the port area in the Miami River is especially suitable for the proliferation of vector mosquitoes. Therefore, this potentially allows the establishment of invasive mosquito species inadvertently brought in by cargo freights.

Objetivos: realizar un análisis económico para evaluar los costos de una intervención educativa, utilizando los principios de un modelo de seguridad humana en Bateyes del suroeste de la República Dominicana. Métodos: se consideraron cuatro recursos de intervención, incluyendo la capacitación del personal, los incentivos mensuales, la supervisión de las actividades de campo y el costo total asociado al tratamiento anual de la diarrea aguda. El gasto se comparó entre el programa estándar de atención (Batey Control) y la intervención con el modelo de seguridad humana (Batey Caso). Resultados: el ahorro del costo total anual para el Ministerio de Salud de República Dominicana asociado con la reducción de la incidencia de episodios de diarrea aguda fue de US$252,399. Si se extrapolan a los 300 Bateyes de República Dominicana, se podría ahorrar aproximadamente US$75 millones en prevención de enfermedades infecciosas. Conclusiones: el modelo de seguridad humana luce ser un método eficaz para mejorar el conocimiento sobre la prevención de enfermedades y aumentar el empoderamiento de la comunidad para la movilización de recursos. Aplicada a otros entornos, la intervención podría tener una incidencia beneficiosa en las poblaciones de refugiados e indocumentados bajo el impacto de la violencia estructural.

This chapter focuses on the impact of global warming on the epidemiology of ticks and tick-borne diseases (TBDs). It also provides future predictions in the prevalence and incidence of TBDs.