This Research Reflection provides an overview of three interrelated topics: (i) lameness in dairy cows, demonstrating the underpinning importance of the condition, (ii) dairy farmer detection, diagnosis and treatment of lameness and associated foot lesions as well as dairy farmer perceptions towards the condition and (iii) lameness detection technologies, and their potential application on farm to automate the detection of lameness in commercial dairy herds. The presented literature clearly demonstrates that lameness is a major health issue in dairy herds, compromising dairy cow welfare and productivity, and resulting in significant economic implications for dairy farmers. Despite this, dairy farmers fail to perceive lameness as a serious threat to their dairy business. This restricted perception of the importance of lameness may be a product of limited ability to detect lame cows. Many automated lameness detection technologies have been proposed to assist dairy farmers in managing their herds. However, limitations such as cost, performance and dairy farmer perception of the usefulness of these technologies, has lead to poor uptake. It can, therefore, be concluded that there is a need to more thoroughly evaluate the effectiveness of these technologies under on-farm conditions, potentially in the form of a demonstration farm network. This will allow generation of the necessary data required to show dairy farmers that these technologies are reliable and are economically rational for their dairy business.

Foot lesions causing lameness in dairy cows have been demonstrated to adversely affect milk yield, reproductive performance and longevity, resulting in significant economic burden to individual dairy farmers and the dairy industry. Further, foot lesions compromise dairy cow welfare. Despite this knowledge, foot lesions remain a large problem in many dairy herds woldwide. Therefore, there is potential for dairy farmers to make changes to their current management practices of foot lesions. This study used the social-psychology framework, the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), to explore dairy farmers' intentions to make improvements to their current management practices of foot lesions in their dairy cows and to identify the underlying behavioral, normative and control beliefs facilitating and constraining this behavior. In accordance with the theoretical framework, Australian dairy farmers were invited to participate in an online questionnaire which included questions regarding intentions, attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control. Fifty-six dairy farmers completed the questionnaire. The overall intention of these dairy farmers to make improvements to their management practices of foot lesions in the next year was moderate. Dairy farmers believed improving their current management practices of foot lesions would improve animal welfare, increase milk production and was worth the cost involved (behavioral beliefs). They indicated that the opinions of consumers, staff, and animal welfare groups were important in their decision to make improvements (normative beliefs). Better equipment and facilities, improved knowledge and training, and a favorable cost-benefit ratio were perceived as factors that would enable dairy farmers to improve their management practices (control beliefs). While all of these beliefs may be considered as potential drivers to facilitate dairy farmers to change their management practices, the behavioral beliefs were identified as the priority beliefs that industry should target in the development of strategies to increase dairy farmer intentions to make improvements to their management practices of foot lesions.

Foot lesions causing lameness in dairy cows are important economic and welfare issues. Prompt and correct detection and diagnosis are critical for improving economic and welfare outcomes. Few tests are currently available to aid the dairy farmer in the detection and diagnosis of foot lesions. The objectives of this systematic review were to identify those tests that have been investigated for the detection and diagnosis of foot lesions causing lameness in dairy cows, evaluate the methodological quality of the studies investigating the identified tests, compare the accuracy of the identified test, and determine which tests can be recommended for implementation on the farm based on accuracy and practicality for use by dairy farmers. A comprehensive literature search resulted in 2137 papers. After removing duplicates and performing relevance screening, 12 papers with 20 studies met the inclusion criteria. Pertinent data from each study were extracted using a standardised form. Eligible studies were grouped based on the objective of the test under investigation, resulting in the following groups of disorders: lameness, foot lesions, sole ulcer, and digital dermatitis. Methodological quality was assessed using the Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies (QUADAS-2) tool which includes four domains: animal selection, index test, reference test and flow and timing. Incomplete reporting in the studies limited the assessment of methodological quality. The animal selection domain was particularly poorly reported. No single study could be classified as being at low risk of bias across all domains of the QUADAS-2 tool. One automated test was identified, while all others were manually operated. No studies reported the cost of the test in question and only two studies reported the time taken to carry out the procedures involved with using the test in question. It was not possible to compare the accuracy of these tests or recommend which tests are suitable for implementation on the farm. This was due to incomplete reporting of information and significant risk of bias in all studies.

Hendra virus is a zoonotic paramyxovirus, which causes severe respiratory and neurological disease in horses and humans. Since 2012, the Hendra virus sub-unit G vaccine has been available for horse vaccination in Australia. Uptake of the vaccine has been limited and spill-over events of Hendra virus infection in horses continue to occur. We conducted an online, questionnaire-based cross-sectional study of 376 horse owners belonging to a variety of different equestrian clubs in Queensland, Australia, to identify risk factors for non-vaccination against Hendra virus. A total of 43.1% (N = 162) of horse owners indicated that they currently did not vaccinate against Hendra virus infection, while 56.9% (N = 214) currently vaccinated against Hendra virus infection. A total of 52 risk factors were evaluated relating to equestrian activities, horse management, perceived risk and severity of horse and human infection with Hendra virus, side effects of Hendra vaccination, other vaccinations conducted by horse owners and horse owners' attitudes towards veterinarians. The final multivariable logistics regression model identified the following risk factors associated with increased odds of non-vaccination against Hendra virus: 1) perceived low risk (compared to high) of Hendra virus infection to horses (considering the horse owners' location and management practices) or horse owners were unsure about the risk of infection, 2) perceived moderate severity (compared to very severe or severe) of Hendra virus infection in humans, 3) horse owners non-vaccination of their pets, 4) horse owners non-vaccination against strangles disease in horses, 5) handling of more than three horses per week (compared to one horse only) and 6) perceived attitude that veterinarians had a high motivation of making money from Hendra virus vaccination (compared to veterinarians having a low motivation of making money from Hendra virus vaccination). Horse owners were more likely to vaccinate against Hendra virus if horses were used for dressage, show jumping or eventing. The study also identified horse owners' concerns about side-effects and about the lack of evidence on vaccine efficacy.

Context Understanding population dynamics of invasive species is crucial for the development of management strategies. Feral horses (Equus caballus) are a growing problem in the Tuan–Toolara State Forest (TTSF), a coniferous plantation in south-eastern Queensland, Australia. Aim The population dynamics of the TTSF feral horses was not known. Therefore, the study was designed to characterise the major vital parameters of this population and, using these data, develop a long-term management plan. Methods The study was conducted over 3 years (2011–14) involving 522 individually identified horses. Foaling rates were used to calculate fecundity. Body fat distribution was estimated using body condition score (BCS), which reflects the nutritional, metabolic and general health of individual animals. Multi state mark–capture population models were used to estimate age-specific survival, and the Leslie age-structured projection matrix model was used to determine the annual rate at which the population increased. Key results The mean annual fecundity was low (0.23 ± 0.07 s.d.). The mean BCS of the population was mid-range (2.55 ± 0.51 s.d.) with adult females having lower scores than other age and gender groups. Survival estimates were consistently high (0.92–0.95) across all age groups. The average annual finite rate of population increase (λ) for the 3 years of the study was 1.09. Sensitivity analysis demonstrated that the population growth rate was almost seven times more sensitive to changes in adult survival compared with juvenile survival, and almost twice as sensitive to changes in fecundity. Key conclusions Population dynamics of the TTSF feral horses were comparable to other feral horse populations similarly challenged by environmental nutritional limitations. Implications Defining population dynamics of the TTSF feral horses permits the formulation of management goals that can be audited and adapted as required. The most effective strategy for controlling population growth in the TTSF would involve the continuing removal of substantial numbers of adult females or manipulation of survival and/or fecundity. As selective removal will likely alter the adult sex ratio and age structure of the population, ongoing assessment is necessary to minimise adverse welfare outcomes.

Context Feral horses are a growing problem in Australia, despite implementation of management strategies. The incidence of horse sightings and horse-associated vehicle collisions within the Tuan and Toolara State Forest (TTSF), a coniferous plantation in south-eastern Queensland, has increased in the past decade, indicating an increase in population and the necessity to undertake an accurate appraisal of population abundance. Aim To determine the feasibility of using dung counts, defecation and dung-decay rates to determine the distribution and abundance of feral horse population in a managed coniferous plantation where dense vegetation prohibits the use of visual-based animal detection methods. Methods Population distribution was assessed by dung count incorporated into a vehicle strip-transect survey on 582 km of forest tracks. Population abundance was estimated from dung density, the mean defecation frequency of feral horses, and the mean number of days required for dung to decay. Dung density was obtained from on-ground distance line-transect survey that sampled all representative plantation habitats and consisted of 111 transects totalling 44.3 km. Key results The strip-transect survey clearly showed that although feral horses were dispersed across the plantation, the distribution was uneven, with the central region of the plantation being the most heavily populated. The combination of dung counts, defecation rate (mean ± s.d., 7.97 ± 8.74) over 24 h and dung-decay rate (444 ± 150.7 days) provided an estimation of the density of feral horses in various habitats and indicated that the plantation was occupied by 1321 (95% CI 940–1965) horses, which corresponded to an average density of 1.8 horses km–2. The method clearly identified variations in horse abundance among the various habitats within the surveyed areas. Open habitats, created following harvesting, showed higher occurrence rates, whereas the habitats of mature forest were scantily occupied. Key conclusions Dung counts are a simple, effective and practical technique that can provide information on distribution and abundance of feral horse population in densely forested habitats where visual-based techniques are not applicable. However, unbiased and precise defecation and decay rates must be estimated. Implications The study validated the use of dung counts to provide information on feral horse distribution and abundance in densely forested environments where direct methods of census may be difficult to obtain. The methods are applicable to a range of ecosystems, but defecation and dung-decay rates must be determined separately for each ecosystem.

Jugular catheterization is a common procedure used under experimental conditions. However, there is considerable variation in the reported techniques, particularly for grower pigs (>40 kg and <60 kg) when larger volumes of blood per sample (>10 mL) are required. This paper provides a complete methodology including the use of current equipment and anaesthetic regimen for grower pigs. This surgical jugular catheterization method was carried out in 30 large white grower pigs. Firstly, the pigs were habituated to human handling for at least two weeks prior to surgery. Animals were sedated and anesthetized. Following intubation, an incision was made in the jugular fossa, and the jugular vein was located. A catheter was then inserted and fixated. The wound was stapled and the catheter line secured to the back of the neck. The pigs recovered fully from the surgery and the catheters remained patent for the duration of the blood sampling period (min 72 h). Twenty millilitres of blood were collected every 15 min, taking approximately 2 min per pig. No haemolysis was detected in any samples. Jugular catheterization of pigs using this procedure proved successful both in terms of animal recovery and quality of samples. Catheters remained patent and pigs remained calm during sampling.

Context The study of any wild animal’s home range requires the collection of spatiotemporal data, obtained independently of climatic conditions or time of day. This can be achieved by the attachment of global positioning system (GPS) data loggers, which, in large species, is best achieved by remote immobilisation. Feral horses (Equus caballus) usually occupy remote areas of Australia; however, a considerable population increase has been observed in a close proximity to metropolitan areas of the Australian east coast, creating increasing conflict with human interests. Aim The aim of the present study was to investigate the efficacy of remote chemical immobilisation of feral horses with medetomidine combined with tiletamine–zolazepam to facilitate placement of satellite GPS collars. Methods Nine feral horses were darted from the ground with 60 mg (i.m.) medetomidine and 1500 mg (i.m.) tiletamine–zolazepam. The effects of medetomidine were reversed with 50–100 mg (i.m. or i.v.) atipamezole 30–40 min after induction (IV/IM). Physiological variables monitored during anaesthesia were heart rate, respiratory rate, temperature and oxygen haemoglobin saturation (Spo2). Key results All horses were successfully immobilised with between one and three darts (n = 9). The mean (± s.e.m.) dose of medetomidine was 0.15 ± 0.01 mg kg–1, whereas that of tiletamine–zolazepam was 3.61 ± 0.16 mg kg–1. Mean time from darting to lateral recumbency was 13.3 ± 2.7 min and mean recumbency time was 54 ± 13 min. Vital signs for all anaesthetised animals remained within the normal range during anaesthesia, with the exception of one animal exhibiting a transient drop in Spo2. There were no deaths. Key conclusions The combination of medetomidine and tiletamine–zolazepam provided adequate anaesthesia in feral horses in the field for application of GPS collars. Implications Although a limited number of horses was immobilised, the present study shows that the combination of medetomidine and tiletamine–zolazepam provides effective short-term anaesthesia for feral horses, affording a practical and field-accessible capture technique. This method could also be applied to other management actions requiring the safe and humane capture of feral horses.

In 2011 an unprecedented epidemic of equine encephalitis occurred in south-eastern (SE) Australia following heavy rainfall and severe flooding in the preceding 2–4 months. Less than 6% of the documented cases occurred in Queensland, prompting the question of pre-existing immunity in Queensland horses. A small-scale serological survey was conducted on horses residing in one of the severely flood-affected areas of SE-Queensland. Using a flavivirus-specific blocking-ELISA we found that 63% (39/62) of horses older than 3 years were positive for flavivirus antibodies, and of these 18% (7/38) had neutralizing antibodies to Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV), Kunjin virus (WNVKUN) and/or Alfuy virus (ALFV). The remainder had serum-neutralizing antibodies to viruses in the Kokobera virus (KOKV) complex or antibodies to unknown/untested flaviviruses. Amongst eight yearlings one presented with clinical MVEV-encephalomyelitis, while another, clinically normal, had MVEV-neutralizing antibodies. The remaining six yearlings were flavivirus antibody negative. Of 19 foals born between August and November 2011 all were flavivirus antibody negative in January 2012. This suggests that horses in the area acquire over time active immunity to a range of flaviviruses. Nevertheless, the relatively infrequent seropositivity to MVEV, WNVKUN and ALFV (15%) suggests that factors other than pre-existing immunity may have contributed to the low incidence of arboviral disease in SE-Queensland horses during the 2011 epidemic.