Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris; figs. 1 through 5) is an iconic tree species native to the southeastern United States. Before the arrival of non-Indigenous settlers, longleaf pine occurred as the dominant tree species across an estimated 29.9 million ha (73.9 million acres) of fire-maintained forests, woodlands, and savannas, and another 7.3 million ha (18 million acres) as a codominant in mixtures with other fire-adapted tree species (Frost, 1993). Over the next three centuries, a combination of anthropogenic factors decimated longleaf pine and its associated ecosystem (Frost, 2006). Longleaf pine was initially harvested by settlers to clear land for agriculture and provide material for housing and fencing. In the early to mid-19th century, vast areas of longleaf pine were killed in turpentine orchards to supply the naval stores industry. Near the turn of the 20th century, steam-powered technology drove decades of extensive logging throughout much of the remaining longleaf pine woodlands. Recovery from exploitation was hindered by regeneration failures deriving from local seed source limitations, seedling depredation from introduced hogs, fire exclusion, and land use conversion. Longleaf pine continued to decline gradually until the 1990s, when existing extent reached its nadir of approximately 1.2 million ha (3 million acres) (Outcalt and Sheffield, 1996). Subsequently, concerns over the loss of habitat for several endemic flora and fauna prompted extensive investment and research into restoring the longleaf pine ecosystem (Landers et al., 1995). Contemporary restoration efforts have succeeded in stemming the loss of longleaf pine extent and have even produced a modest recovery. However, at the current estimated extent of 1.8 million ha (4.4 million acres), restoration remains a work in progress (Oswalt and Guldin, 2021). Longleaf pine is preferentially grown for its ecological, economic, and social values. Ecologically, longleaf pine is considered a foundational species in southeastern woodlands for its role in promoting understory flammability (Varner et al., 2021a). Longleaf pine is also well adapted to resist disturbances such as drought and wind, which are common throughout the region (Rutledge et al., 2021; Samuelson et al., 2019). From an economic perspective, longleaf pine is often commercially grown for sawtimber or utility poles, while its straw is highly sought as groundcover in the landscaping industry (Dickens et al., 2012; South, 2006). Beyond its ecological and economic importance, longleaf pine is viewed by many throughout the region as a cultural symbol connecting humans to their local environment (Gordon et al., 2020).

Alabama is comprised of 23 million acres of forestland, of which family forest landowners (FFLs) own 56 % of that acreage. Therefore, FFLs are vital to maintaining the quality and diversity of Alabama's forests. However, FFLs possess varying attitudes towards management, value their land for different reasons, and have differing management objectives. In addition, FFLs are comprised of diverse backgrounds, own vastly different acreages, and fall within differing income brackets, all of which have been shown to affect management usage. This research aims to assess consulting foresters and FFLs in Alabama to learn why FFLs are hesitant to use consulting foresters for land management. It also aims to educate FFLs and consulting foresters in Alabama on better communicating their needs, services, and benefits. To study these two groups, a set of interviews and two surveys were used to collect perceptions, experiences, and needs. While consulting foresters are willing to work with smaller acreage, there are still constraints preventing management, and cost was mentioned by both groups. Still, FFLs are interested in consulting foresters' services, but many do not actively market FFLs. As a result, FFLs are unaware of the different types of forestry professionals, causing competition for consulting foresters who must be registered. Both consulting foresters and FFLs need to become more active in organizations, and consulting foresters need to adopt newer marketing techniques, while FFLs should seek more educational opportunities and opportunities to interact with consulting foresters directly.

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Of Alabama's 9.31 million hectares (23 million acres) of forestland, over 5.27 million hectares (13 million acres) of it is owned by family forest landowners (FFLs). Therefore, they play a pivotal role in the future of Alabama's forests. Due to a combination of shift in ownership and land parcelization, forestland is becoming separated into smaller parcels. In consequence, management is likely becoming more deficient, as smaller tracts are less likely to have a management plan or received forest management advice. Educating and improving income generating opportunities can also provide opportunities and motivation for FFLs to manage their forestland to support healthy, sustainable forests. The purpose of this study is to assess FFLs in Alabama to gain knowledge about income generation from their forestland and to better understand their motivation, or lack thereof, for managing their forestland. Using county tax records, we distributed a survey to approximately 1,000 FFLs in Alabama who own four or more hectares of forestland. FFLs have interest in generating income from their forestland. Forest management has been identified to be important for FFLs. Those FFLs, that generate income from forests, are also managing their forests. These results highlight the potential for using income generating opportunities on smaller tracts of forestland as an approach to improve forest management on these lands and opportunities for improvements to native ecosystems.

Wildland fires present a threat to both the environment and to homes and businesses in the wildland urban interface. Understanding the behavior of wildland fires is crucial for developing informed risk management techniques, such as prescribed burning, to prevent uncontrolled fires, which devastate communities globally. In this work, an optically accessible facility was developed combining traditional and optical diagnostic techniques to study the combustion of wildland fuels. This facility was then used to study the burning characteristics of loblolly pine needles (Pinus taeda). Mass loss rate, flame temperature, propagation rate, flame geometry, and OH* chemiluminescent flame intensity were measured for fuel loadings of 0.98, 1.31, and 1.63 kg/m(2). Mass loss rate increased linearly with fuel loading. The flame propagation rate increased slightly with fuel loading while approaching an asymptotic value. The flame height and surface area increased more significantly with fuel loading, but also approached asymptotic values. Flame depth increased slightly with fuel loading, and throughout the duration of the test. The flame intensity and flame temperature did not change significantly with fuel loading.

Emulating natural disturbance has become an increasingly important restoration strategy. In the fire-maintained woodlands of the southeastern United States, contemporary restoration efforts have focused on approximating the historical fire regime by burning at short intervals. Due to concerns over escape and damage to mature trees, most prescribed burning has occurred in the dormant season, which is inconsistent with the historical prevalence of lightning-initiated fire in the region. This discordance between contemporary prescribed burning and what is thought to be the historical fire regime has led some to question whether dormant season burning should remain the most common management practice; however, little is known about the long-term effects of repeated growing season burning on the health and productivity of desirable tree species. To address this question, we report on a long-term experiment comparing the effects of seasonal biennial burning (winter, spring, and summer) and no burning on the final survival status, height, diameter, and volume growth of 892 mature longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris ) over 23 years in three mature even-aged stands in southern Alabama, United States. Overall, longleaf pine survival across all treatments averaged 81 ± 2% [s.e]. Among seasonal burn treatments, survival was highest in the spring burns (82 ± 4%) but did not vary significantly from any other treatment (summer – 79 ± 4%, winter – 81 ± 4%, unburned – 84 ± 4%). However, survival was statistically influenced by initial diameter at breast height, as survival of trees in the largest size class (30 cm) was 40% higher than trees in the smallest size class (5 cm). Productivity of longleaf pine was not significantly different among treatment averages in terms of volume (38.9–44.1 ± 6.0 m 3 ha –1 ), diameter (6.0–6.7 ± 0.3 cm), and height (2.5–3.4 ± 0.4 m) growth. Collectively, our results demonstrate that burning outside the dormant season will have little impact on mature longleaf pine survival and growth. This finding has important implications for the maintenance of restored southeastern woodlands, as interest in burning outside the dormant season continues to grow.

Operating as ecological engineers, the increased distribution and abundance of wild hogs (Sus scrofa) has caused considerable socio-economic impacts. The international scope of economic research providing wild hog damage estimates are often confined to agricultural crops, while damage estimates among forest plantations are lacking. In Alabama, private landowners hold the majority of timberland acreage and are less equipped to absorb financial losses from wild hog damage than their industrial counterparts. A survey was conducted to estimate the economic impact of wild hogs, namely costs of damage and control, to privately owned forestlands. The survey was distributed in the summer of 2016 to a sample of 1160 private landowners across the State. A 35% response rate was achieved from the sampled group. Survey results indicated in 2013 to 2015 longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) and loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) were the only species damaged by wild hogs. Wild hogs caused damage to 34 and 13% of forest acres in longleaf and loblolly plantations, respectively. At $50.40 per acre, costs associated with replanting damaged longleaf acres were double those for loblolly. Survey results suggest the southern half of Alabama holds the largest wild hog populations and sustained the most damage to forest stands. Consequently, landowners in this region invested the most capital on control methods where the average cost per control technique ranged from $12–2750. Additionally, landowners who did not have wild hogs on their property were willing to pay around $14 per acre more for eradication than those with. We hope the findings from this survey will provide a better understanding of the economic impact of wild hogs in young forest plantations.

Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.), and slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) are two southern pine species that are popular for producing pine straw for landscaping. The objective of this research was to determine the response of soil properties and weed growth to the application of pine straw. Longleaf pine, slash pine, and two non-mulched controls (with and without chemical weed control) were tested. Volumetric soil water content, soil nutrients, soil temperature, weed biomass, and seedling growth were measured. Compared to non-mulched controls, both longleaf and slash pine plots had a greater soil moisture during extended periods without rainfall in the full sun environment. When soil temperatures increased, mulched plots had lower soil temperature relative to non-mulched plots. Soil pH and soil nutrients were generally similar between pine straw types with few significant differences in measured variables. Both pine straw treatments reduced weed growth and longleaf pine maintained a greater straw depth over the study period compared to slash pine, but no differences were observed for decomposition. These results indicate that longleaf pine straw and slash pine straw perform equally as well in terms of increasing soil moisture, moderating soil temperature, and reducing weed growth compared to not using mulch. Index words: Pinus elliottii, Pinus palustris, organic mulch, soil properties, landscaping. Species used in this study: Shumard oak, Quercus shumardii Buckl., Eastern redbud, Cercis canadensis L.

Global change has resulted in chronic shifts in fire regimes. Variability in the sensitivity of tree communities to multi-decadal changes in fire regimes is critical to anticipating shifts in ecosystem structure and function, yet remains poorly understood. Here, we address the overall effects of fire on tree communities and the factors controlling their sensitivity in 29 sites that experienced multi-decadal alterations in fire frequencies in savanna and forest ecosystems across tropical and temperate regions. Fire had a strong overall effect on tree communities, with an average fire frequency (one fire every three years) reducing stem density by 48% and basal area by 53% after 50 years, relative to unburned plots. The largest changes occurred in savanna ecosystems and in sites with strong wet seasons or strong dry seasons, pointing to fire characteristics and species composition as important. Analyses of functional traits highlighted the impact of fire-driven changes in soil nutrients because frequent burning favoured trees with low biomass nitrogen and phosphorus content, and with more efficient nitrogen acquisition through ectomycorrhizal symbioses. Taken together, the response of trees to altered fire frequencies depends both on climatic and vegetation determinants of fire behaviour and tree growth, and the coupling between fire-driven nutrient losses and plant traits. Using tree community data from 29 tropical and temperate sites that have experienced multi-decadal alterations in fire frequency, the authors show repeated burning generally reduces stem density and basal area, with most pronounced effects in savanna ecosystems and in sites with strong wet seasons or strong dry seasons.

We examined a study plot sampled in the Conecuh National Forest of southern Alabama in 1999 and again in 2016 after stand thinning and persistent prescribed fire were used to improve habitat quality. These management activities were designed, in part, to enhance habitat quality for the gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus), a species considered for protection under the Endangered Species Act because of range-wide population declines. Comparisons of vegetation structure were made at burrows that were active in 1999 and remained active in 2016, and at burrows that were active in 1999 but were classified as abandoned in 2016. Burrows that remained active across this span of time were distinctive in retaining a greater reduction of canopy cover and lacking hardwoods while having a high percentage of long-leaf pine in neighboring canopy trees. Active burrows that were abandoned in 2016 were distinctive in possessing hardwoods among neighboring canopy trees, lacking pine seedlings in the midstory, and having increased frequency of legumes and decreased bare ground in the understory. All burrows experienced a decrease in canopy cover and an increase in distance to, and dbh of, neighboring canopy trees; all burrows also had a decrease in litter and non-legume forbs as well as an increase in shrub stems in the understory and midstory. These results indicate that management activities were successful in opening canopy cover but were largely unsuccessful at reducing shrub stems and increasing understory grasses and forbs. Nevertheless, burrows of gopher tortoises increased in abundance during this time period. The size distribution of these burrows changed from a unimodal distribution dominated by adults to a bimodal distribution indicative of increased juvenile recruitment. Thus, the gopher tortoise population increased in association with vegetation changes that suggest tortoises are more sensitive to shading caused by canopy closure than they are to available forage.

Efforts to restore longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) in the southeastern US require substantial artificial regeneration. Once established, important questions remain about when to introduce fire. We investigated the impact of initial planting density on tree branching and how prescribed fire might interact with tree architecture and survival. A particular focus was on how prescribed fires could “prune” lower branches. Lower density plantings (897 trees ha−1) had more and larger live lower branches than higher density plantings (2,243 trees ha−1). Fire was effective in pruning lower branches regardless of season burned, but fire in the growing season was more effective at pruning. Branches up to a height of 1.5 to 2 m were killed by fire. Fire applied in August caused greater damage with more needles scorched and/or consumed and more stem char. Prescribed fire did not impact longleaf pine tree survival. In general, fire applied to longleaf pine facilitated pruning lower branches that affect long-term wood quality, an additional argument for its utility in restoration and management of these ecosystems.

We assessed natural regeneration of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) using the data collected from the Escambia Experimental Forest in southern Alabama. Fifteen years after the regeneration control, natural regeneration of longleaf pine remained patchy across a wide range of site and stand conditions; slightly more than half of all plots contained regeneration, but the density of seedlings and saplings varied significantly. The abundance of seedlings ≤1-year-old was positively related to stand age and time since last fire, but negatively related to overstory basal area. The abundance of seedlings and saplings was positively related to stand age, but negatively related to time since last fire and overstory basal area. The probability of achieving at least 15 000 seedlings·ha–1 that are older than 1 year but less than 1 m tall and at least 1250 saplings·ha–1 that are over 1 m tall was, respectively, positively related to the ratio of time since last fire to overstory basal area and the ratio of quadratic mean diameter to site index. A longer fire interval (> 2 to 3 years) should be adopted to naturally regenerate longleaf. We did not find clear zones of exclusion present in natural regeneration even though overstory trees, seedlings, and saplings tended to be repulsive spatially and >80% grass stage seedlings and saplings occurred outside tree crowns.

The primary objective of many longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris ) restoration programs is to enhance or restore habitat for wildlife dependent on herbaceous plant communities. Because herbaceous cover is inversely related to canopy cover, restoration programs often place restrictions on longleaf pine planting density. However, the influence of planting density on understory plant communities has been inadequately evaluated. Therefore, we initiated a study to examine the relative influences of planting density and other factors on overall understory composition and forage availability for white‐tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) and northern bobwhite ( Colinus virginianus ) in nine longleaf pine stands throughout the Coastal Plain of Alabama during 2017–2018. We found that coverage of herbaceous plants decreased 3.5%, coverage of woody plants decreased 2.4%, and coverage of northern bobwhite forage plants decreased 1.9% for each 1 m 2 /ha increase in longleaf pine basal area. However, planting density was not a significant predictor of current basal area, nor coverage of any functional group of plants we examined, likely because current longleaf pine density averaged only 46% (range = 30–64%) of seedling planting density. We did not detect an effect of prescribed fire on stand condition or understory plant communities, likely due to variability in fire timing and frequency. Our findings related to planting density were likely a function of low longleaf pine survival, which is not uncommon. Because of this and the inherent variability in growth rates for young longleaf pine stands, restoration programs should consider placing greater emphasis on post‐planting monitoring and management than planting density.

Expanding wild pig (Sus scrofa) populations across the southern United States has the potential to impact longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) restoration efforts. The depredation of planted pine seedlings is the most widespread and economically costly damage caused by wild pigs in forest plantations. A better understanding of the ecological factors affecting depredation rates will allow managers to implement best management practices to reduce seedling mortality from wild pigs at their most vulnerable stage of growth. From March 2016 to March 2017, we evaluated wild pig preferences for planted pine and hardwood species at a 34.4-ha cutover site and 4.7-ha pecan (Carya illinoinensis) orchard in Bullock County, Alabama, USA. Wild pig damage differed for the 5 seedling species tested, with longleaf and cherrybark oak (Quercus pagodaefolia) being the most preferred. Ninety one percent of seedlings destroyed by wild pigs were from the cutover site. Wild pigs at the cutover site experienced substantially more hunting pressure compared to those at the other site. We believe the debris scattering practices of the logging crew following a clearcut created a desirable foraging environment that led to the initial discovery of the seedlings. The short-term protection and minimization of seedling depredation in young forest plantations may be the most realistic solution to reducing the impact of wild pigs on forestry and timber resources.

Since the beginning of the 1980s, vertically integrated forest products companies have divested their forestland with much of the new ownership being real estate investment trusts (REITs) and timberland investment management organizations (TIMOs). These new landowners and their associated behavior of intensive timber management and higher and better use conversion has given rise to issues such as land-use change, fragmentation, and conservation. To better gauge harvesting patterns and ownership changes associated with the divestment of forestland by forest industry and the arrival of TIMOs and REITs on the forested landscape, eleven Landsat scenes were used to detect harvest activity within the Alabama counties of Bibb, Hale, Pickens, and Tuscaloosa from 1984 to 2014. Detected harvesting activity was paired with county parcel data and then classified based on landowner type: REITs, TIMOs, forest product industry, government, and non-industrial private forest (NIPF) landowners. Overall harvest trends showed a decrease in harvest rates from 1984 to 2005 with a slight increase in harvest rates after 2005. Per scene interval, acres harvested were highly variable for NIPF and relatively stable for forest industry during this time. Government ownership maintained relatively low and stable harvesting behavior throughout the study period. Acres harvested by REITs was relatively low. TIMOs showed an ever increasing rate of harvest within the study area until the last scene interval (2011-2014).

Most of the forested lands in the south-eastern United States were largely the result of the frequent, low intensity, non-lethal fires that swept through the pre-settlement forests. In the absence of fire, forested stands develop a thick undergrowth of broad-leaved species and herbaceous vegetation. In this study, we compared the influence of prescribed fire on the understory vegetative cover of loblolly pine stands in relation to visual quality assessment. To examine the visual quality of prescribed fire management, a box-counting method was used to analyze photographs of prescribed fire management. The photographs were taken from: a) one-year fire return interval, b) two-year fire return interval, c) three-year fire return interval, and d) no-burn. The objectives of this study were: 1) develop a comparison of aesthetic value of the different fire return intervals of fire management with areas not experiencing prescribed fire; and 2) provide an estimate of enhancing visual quality of forest stands with prescribed fire management. The results showed that one-year interval prescribed fire application stands had more abundant grass cover (Andropogon sp.) than two- and three-year interval treatments. There was a significant decrease in grass cover between one-year and two-year prescribed burning. A positive relationship was also found between frequency of fire treatment and abundance of grass. No burn areas were covered by woody vegetation which may have a negative impact on scenic beauty and visual quality.

Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) historically was a widespread ecosystem composed of a simple tree canopy and grasslands ground layer. After widespread loss of this ecosystem due to logging and fire exclusion, little quantitative information exists about historical structure for restoration goals. We identified composition in De Soto National Forest and Pearl River County, Mississippi, USA, and density, basal area, and percent stocking in Pearl River County using General Land Office surveys and US Forest Service Forest Inventory and Analysis surveys. Historical longleaf ecosystems were about 85% pine, with lesser amounts of broadleaf evergreen and oak species. Densities were about 175 to 180 trees/ha, mean tree diameters were 45 cm, and stocking was around 60% to 65%, which suggested longleaf pines were closed woodlands. Current forests are 38% to 57% pine, primarily loblolly, while longleaf pine is 2% to 8% of composition. Indeed, current longleaf pine composition across the Coastal Plain averages 3% and does not reach 10% at smaller landscape scales. Fire-sensitive broadleaf species of water oak, sweetgum, yellow-poplar, and red maple increased from about 0.5% composition to 2% to 10% of composition. Forests became twice as dense, at about 280 trees/ha to 330 trees/ha, with mean tree diameters of 22 cm. These results characterize conversion from open old growth longleaf forests, resulting in part from human maintenance, to successional forests due to human disruption of the historical ecosystem. It is important to remember structure and composition of historical forests for restoration and recognize wholesale changes so that successional forests do not become the new social and cultural baseline.

The US Fish and Wildlife Service has engaged conservation partners to assist in assessing current conditions and needs to retain and restore one of the South's rarest pine ecosystems. The "wet-piedmont longleaf pine forest" is characterized by the presence of longleaf, loblolly, and pond pines in association with facultative-wetland species. This longleaf forest type is assigned the rarest ranking by NatureServe and the North Carolina Natural Heritage Program (G1S1). A remnant of that ecosystem type exists on the Pee Dee National Wildlife Refuge in Wadesboro, North Carolina, where overstory species include longleaf and pond pine in association with the commonly represented loblolly pine. In addition, shortleaf pine and a variety of hardwood species are present. Initial restoration actions have focused on (1) reducing the understory presence of sweetgum; (2) introducing variable density retention of loblolly pine within a mixture of longleaf, pond, and shortleaf pines; and (3) application of prescribed fire. Stem-mapping of longleaf, pond, and shortleaf pine was accomplished over a 61-ha stand to evaluate natural-regeneration potential and assist in defining and advancing ecosystem restoration.

Because of the dramatic decline in longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) acreage, concern about restoration and management of these ecosystems has increased in recent years and created a need for effective silvicultural management tools. Stocking charts are useful quantitative tools to allocate tree area to meet specific silvicultural objectives including restoration; however, there has not been one created specifically for longleaf pine forests. Because successful management of longleaf pine is often associated with density management at or near the onset of full site occupancy, which is readily determined on a stocking chart, the development of the chart for the species was needed. We developed a Gingrich-style stocking chart for longleaf pine forests using published approaches and models from the literature. Average maximum density (A-line stocking) was determined using forest inventory data whereas onset of full site occupancy (B-line stocking) was derived from an existing open-growth crown width equation. Reduced major axis regression was used to determine size-density relationships because it gives less biased and more efficient estimates than ordinary least squares regression. Previous studies, physiological data, and longleaf pine silvical traits all support the size-density characteristics depicted on this stocking chart. We found that percent stocking was better than basal area as a predictor of tree growth, although the difference between the two measures was not significant in understocked stands. The difference between percent stocking and stand density index as a predictor of tree growth was not statistically significant. With the stocking chart presented in this article, tree area relationships can be effectively and easily used to achieve specific silvicultural objectives.