Odors are powerful but often unconsciously processed cues that can evoke enduring memories and subtly guide human behavior. Their implicit nature and resistance to forgetting suggests that olfaction may play a unique role in spatial memory and navigation. This study investigates the influence of unconsciously perceived ambient scents on human wayfinding performance over a one-month period. Twenty-two participants learned a route through a virtual maze using visual landmarks in either weakly scented (butyric acid, lavender) or non-scented test cabins. Their route memory was tested immediately after the learning phase and one month later. Additionally, participants completed an implicit odor memory task, rating the fit between seven odors, including the ambient scents, and ten different surroundings, including the test cabin. They labeled the odors and recalled where and when they had last smelled them. Participants who remembered smelling the ambient scent in the test cabin were excluded from the analyses. Results showed that the ambient odors influenced fit ratings, with higher ratings between the visual context of the test cabin and the respective ambient odor in the scented conditions than in the no-scent condition. This suggests that the ambient scents were perceived implicitly, as the remaining participants could not report any conscious recollection of them. The ambient scent butyric acid significantly improved wayfinding performance, while lavender had no significant impact. No clear evidence was found for the effects of ambient scents on forgetting dynamics over a one-month period. Our findings, underscoring the critical role of olfaction in human wayfinding, are discussed in detail with implications for future research.

Landmarks play a pivotal role in human wayfinding. Given the predominant focus on the visual system in previous studies, we investigated auditory landmarks as physical and imagined auditory cues. In an online experiment, participants (N = 120) learned a path through a 15-intersection virtual maze with landmarks and directional indicators (left, right, straight). In the physical auditory landmark condition, animal sounds (e.g., barking dog) served as stimuli, while participants in the imagined condition received instructions to imagine specific sounds. Participants' task was to recall the route using the learned associations between landmarks and directional indicators (recall task). Subsequently, participants were presented with 30 stimuli (15 landmarks, 15 distractors) in random order and indicated whether each had been presented during learning (landmark recognition task). Results demonstrate higher route knowledge and landmark recognition performance in the imagined condition, suggesting imagined landmark information may support spatial orientation and memory for navigationally relevant information.

Keywords: accuracy prompts, Inaccuracy Prompts, news framing, disinformation, emotional cues, fake news, consciousness, dual process theory

Nowadays, navigation systems are widely used to find the shortest path between a starting point and a destination. In order to guide the user these systems rely on visual information. However, consider, e.g. visually impaired or elderly people. They may not be able to navigate using only visual information. Additionally, sometimes there is no visual information (i.e. visual landmark) available. In such a case olfactory information could be a helpful route guidance. To identify possible olfactory cues, we performed two online studies as well as a focus-group interview and identified 13 different smell classes usable for navigation and wayfinding. Based on our results, we gathered data for these classes in an urban environment. We collected 201 smells and mapped their values for the properties temporary, intensity, and notes. We underline the findings of previous studies that the majority of odours in an urban area are gastronomy and waste-related odours. We find a number of smells that have daily or seasonal dependencies and conclude that the temporary property should be captured in more detail in future studies. We also discuss additional properties of smells and smell mapping that should be considered in future work.

Many projects and campaigns against fake news try to tell people what is either right or wrong. This mainly leads to low acceptance rates by people. Therefore, we here claim that a proper way of working against fake news is to encourage people to think for themselves before spreading any type of news. People need to pause for a moment and ask themselves whether they believe this information to be true or not. This can be realized via nudging and boosting, concepts deeply rooted in Cognitive Psychology. We hope that this discussion paper will be adopted as an amendment for other projects and campaigns against fake news known from the literature in order to increase their value and impact.

OPINION article Front. Psychol., 22 March 2023Sec. Cognitive Science Volume 14 - 2023 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1092715

Non-human animals are exceptionally good at using smell to find their way through the environment. However, the use of olfactory cues for human navigation is often underestimated. Although the sense of smell is well-known for its distinct connection to memory and emotion, memory effects in human navigation using olfactory landmarks have not been studied yet. Therefore, this article compares wayfinding and recognition performance for visual and olfactory landmarks learned by 52 participants in a virtual maze. Furthermore, it is one of the first empirical studies investigating differences in memory effects on human navigation by using two separate test situations 1 month apart. The experimental task was to find the way through a maze-like virtual environment with either olfactory or visual cues at the intersections that served as decision points. Our descriptive results show that performance was above chance level for both conditions (visual and olfactory landmarks). Wayfinding performance did not decrease 1 month later when using olfactory landmarks. In contrast, when using visual landmarks wayfinding performance decreased significantly, while visual landmarks overall lead to better recognition than olfactory landmarks at both times of testing. The results demonstrate the unique character of human odor memory and support the conclusion that olfactory cues may be used in human spatial orientation. Furthermore, the present study expands the research field of human wayfinding by providing a study that investigates memory for landmark knowledge and route decisions for the visual and olfactory modality. However, more studies are required to put this important research strand forward.

Recent studies suggest that the olfactory system is not as indiscriminative as previously thought. Odours can serve as useful landmark information. The current study explored recognition and wayfinding performance in 54 participants (52 at t2), who either received 18 unimodal (only visual or olfactory) or multimodal (visual-olfactory) landmark information during a learning phase in a virtual reality maze before finding their way through it. Recognition performance was assessed in a recognition task (18 targets, 18 distractors). The experiment was repeated after one month. As expected, participants showed poorer recognition performance if presented with odours compared to the other two conditions. But, recognition performance did not decline over time. Wayfinding performance was similar across all conditions. However, odours were the only condition with stable performance over time, possibly due to emotional mediation and deeper processing. Multimodal material added no value to wayfinding performance, supposedly due to higher cognitive load.

Abstract. Conventional navigation systems use visually perceptible landmarks to navigate their users from a starting point to a destination. However, sometimes visual information is not enough for route guidance. Visually-impaired or elderly people may not be able to navigate using the visual sense. Furthermore, there may exist no outstanding (i.e., salient) visual landmarks that could be used to navigate. In such a case auditory information may be a helpful guide. We performed two online studies and a focus-group interview to identify possible sound classes in an urban environment. Based on our results, we gathered sounds in Augsburg and classified them according to their source. The findings support our notion that auditory information can be useful for spatial orientation and guidance in addition to or even replacing visual information.

In our daily life navigation systems play a pivotal role. These technical aids are used to find a way in unknown environments. Nowadays, they are already integrated into cars or available as smartphone apps. However, navigation is not necessarily successful when using such navigation aids. A highly debated but widely accepted consensus is that the increased use of navigation aids is associated with decreasing navigation skills (i.e., cognitive skills) and social interaction. In the current discussion paper, we therefore want to focus on how to reduce such (possibly) detrimental effects while engaging people in active spatial learning during the use of a navigation device. As we will demonstrate, such an active engagement can be realized rather easily and in a very simple manner: an explicit instruction (and people's will to follow it). The way the instruction and the task are presented does not seem to matter (i.e., self-read, experimenter-read, or AI-read). The most simple but decisive element for effective wayfinding may be found on the individual psychological level, rather than on the design level for artificial systems. Thus, our discussion paper wants to 1) provide ideas on how to reduce possible detrimental effects in wayfinding (short-term and long-term) and 2) stimulate research on the psychological issues in addition to the technical issues.

Despite the predominant focus on visual perception in most studies, the role of humans’ sense of smell in navigation has often been neglected. Recent research, however, could show that humans are indeed able to use their sense of smell for orientation, particularly when processed implicitly. In this study, we investigate whether implicit perception of olfactory landmarks enhanced wayfinding performance compared to explicit perception. Fifty-two people completed a wayfinding and a recognition task in a virtual maze at two times of testing 1 month apart. Participants either received olfactory, visual, or both cues at the intersections. Wayfinding performance was better for olfactory landmarks, which were not correctly remembered in the recognition task. In contrast, wayfinding performance was better when visual landmarks were correctly remembered. In the multimodal condition, wayfinding performance was better with landmarks being remembered at t1 and remained the same at t2. Our results suggest distinct implicit processing mechanisms within the olfactory system and therefore hold important implications for the nature of spatial odor processing extending beyond explicit odor localization tasks. The study highlights the importance for future studies to develop and employ further experimental methods that capture implicit processing across all of our senses. This is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of consciousness, as olfaction strongly influences our behavior, but remains largely latent unless deliberately honed through practice.

Cognitive studies showed that good landmarks–salient objects in the environment–make it easier for recipients of route instructions to find their way to the destination. Adding landmarks to route instructions also improves mobile navigation systems for pedestrians. But, which landmarks do people consider most helpful when giving route instructions? Four experiments explored this question. In the first experiment, the environment, including the route and landmarks, was presented on a map. The landmarks were located at the four corners of a right-angled intersection. Participants had to select those landmark-based route instructions they considered most helpful. In all other experiments, the environment was presented from an egocentric perspective, either in a video or as a sequence of pictures of intersections. Participants had to select those landmarks they would use in a route instruction. All landmarks had the same visual and semantic salience. The positions of the participants at the intersection were varied. Results show that participants consistently selected landmarks at the side of the road into which they had to turn. Moreover, the participants' position at the intersection affected whether they selected landmarks before or behind the decision point. These results have consequences for human spatial cognition research and for the automatic selection of landmarks in mobile pedestrian navigation systems.

This study investigates switching costs in landmark-based wayfinding using olfactory and visual landmark information. It has already been demonstrated that there seem to be no switching costs, in terms of correct route decisions, when switching between acoustically and visually presented landmarks. Olfaction, on the other hand, is not extensively focused on in landmark-based wayfinding thus far, especially with respect to modality switching. The goal of this work is to empirically test and compare visual and olfactory landmark information with regard to their suitability for wayfinding including a modality switch. To investigate this, an experiment within a virtual environment was conducted in which participants were walked along a virtual route of 12 intersections. At each intersection, landmark information together with directional information was presented, which was to be memorized and recalled in the following phase, either in the same or in the other modality (i.e., visual or olfactory). The results of the study show that, in contrast to the no-switching costs between auditory and visual landmarks in previous studies, switching costs occur when switching modality from visual to olfactory and vice versa. This is indicated by both longer decision times and fewer correct decisions. This means that a modality switch involving olfactory landmark information is possible but could lead to poorer performance. Therefore, olfaction may still be valuable for landmark-based-wayfinding. We argue that the poorer performance in the switching-condition is possibly due to higher cognitive load and the separate initial processing of odors and images in different cognitive systems.

In his target article on “Scented Colours”, Charles Spence highlights the importance of crossmodal connections by focusing on the interaction between odors and colors. In this commentary and our presentation of own empirical work in this research context, we want to reach out further by emphasizing this importance not only on a perceptual and representational level, but also highlight it as an example for spatial cognition research. We provide an evaluation study on emotional effects of odors that could be used in future interdisciplinary research. While the meaning of odors in spatial wayfinding is, thus far, not well investigated, we want to briefly introduce the current research state, focus on new and valuable research strains in this area as an example for the importance of odors in cognitive research.

Are landmarks exaggerated in human wayfinding? Daniel R. Montello says yes, and I basically agree with his opinion. However, I do agree on a different level. My aim for this discussion article is to point out why landmarks are indeed exaggerated in this research context and I will try to approach this claim from several perspectives. First, the research focus in this field is, unfortunately, mainly on visual landmarks. Second, other modalities than vision-e.g., auditory and/or olfactory senses-can be used for landmark-based wayfinding. Third, we need to clearly differentiate between conscious/effortful and unconscious/automatic processing of spatial information in the context of landmark-based wayfinding. Finally, I will suggest that landmarks, even if exaggerated in the visual domain, are (still) of significant importance in human wayfinding and spatial cognition.