Abstract Accurate language assessment is essential in clinical and research contexts. However, most assessment tools and questionnaires have been developed within monolingual frameworks, overlooking the particularities of the vast multilingual population and, thus, often leading to misdiagnosis and inequitable care. Here, we examine the limitations of monolingual‐centric approaches to language testing in multilinguals with acquired and progressive neurogenic disorders and explore the implications of multilingualism across linguistic, cognitive, neural, clinical, and sociocultural domains. We also address the need for technological innovation and theoretical refinement to better accommodate linguistic diversity in healthcare. Ultimately, we advocate for a nuanced, equitable, and culturally sensitive model of language assessment that reflects the realities of multilingual populations by accounting for their diverse linguistic repertoires, cognitive trajectories, and neural profiles. This model integrates valid, adapted tools, inclusive normative data, and context‐appropriate testing practices, with particular attention to under‐represented and typologically diverse languages.

Lexicality effects and error type can indicate whether spelling relies on sub-lexical or lexical routes. We used non-words and words to examine spelling strategies across adulthood. Forty younger (mean age 24.70), 41 middle age (mean age 49.00), and 40 older adults (mean age 73.83) spelled 36 non-words that consisted of existing morphemes and 36 real words. Coding distinguished between homophonic errors in target letters, non-homophonic errors (e.g., letter substitution, insertion, transposition, or omission), and whole word substitution errors. Older adults demonstrated the largest lexicality effect, with the greatest difference between non-words and words. In addition, younger adults made more homophonic errors, fewer non-homophonic errors, and fewer word substitution errors than did older adults. The findings provide evidence for a greater reliance on the sub-lexical spelling route in younger age, as well as for a greater reliance on the lexical spelling route in older age.

Research on Parkinson's disease (PD) has documented significant deficits in verb production, with more robust results in single word retrieval tasks than in connected speech, yet the underlying causes of these deficits are disputable, especially concerning connected speech production. We analyzed picture descriptions provided by 48 individuals with PD and 48 age-matched healthy controls, and examined the percent of nouns and verbs of all words, the number of described events, verbs denoting activity, verbs in active morpho-syntactic patterns, and transitive verbs. Individuals with PD produced a lower percent of verbs than did control participants, but the groups differed in no other variable. Scores on a cognitive screening task associated with the percent of verbs and the number of events. We suggest that verb retrieval in connected speech in PD reflects no specific difficulty with action semantics, but rather the spread of PD pathology into more diffuse verb-specific neural networks.

PurposePrevious studies have shown morphological facilitation of spelling accuracy, as well as evidence for longer intervals at morpheme boundary in adult spelling. The current study examined the effect of morphological structure on retrieval of orthographic representations of spelling across adulthood.MethodForty younger (22-30 year-old, 50% women), 40 middle age (44-55 year-old, 60% women), and 40 older (70-80 year-old, 55% women) Hebrew-speaking adults spelled 60 morphologically simple and 60 morphologically complex words from dictation. Coding distinguished between homophonic errors that involved a substitution of a target letter with phonologically plausible (but incorrect) letter, and all other errors, which we termed non-homophonic errors.ResultsYounger adults made more homophonic errors and fewer non-homophonic errors than did older adults, regardless of morphological condition. The younger and middle-age adults showed no morphological effect, whereas older adults made fewer non-homophonic errors on morphologically simple than on morphologically complex words.ConclusionMorphological complexity did not facilitate spelling across adulthood, and instead it increased peripheral, non-homophonic errors in older individuals, likely because online activation of morphological constituents during spelling limited processing capacity, especially in old age. Importantly, aging did not lead to difficulties in orthographic retrieval.

Susac syndrome (SuS) presents with encephalopathy, visual disturbances, and hearing loss from immune- mediated microvascular occlusion. While acute SuS is well-described, long-term cognitive outcomes with current treatments are underknown. We assessed ten SuS patients treated in accordance with evidence-based guidelines using immunotherapies targeting humoral and cell-mediated pathways. Patients were followed for a median 3.6 years. Initially, cognition inversely correlated with corpus callosum lesions on MRI. All reported cognitive improvement; 5/10 patients had residual deficits in visual attention and executive function. Early, aggressive treatment was associated with good outcomes; extensive early corpus callosum lesions may identify patients at-risk of persistent cognitive deficits.

Background Glucocerebrosidase 1 (GBA1) mutations are associated with reduced survival in Parkinson's disease but their effect on survival in dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) is unclear. Objective To assess the impact of GBA1 mutations on survival among Ashkenazi Jews with DLB, while controlling for APOE status. Methods One hundred and forty participants from Tel Aviv Medical Center, Israel were genotyped for GBA1 mutations and APOE polymorphisms. Survival rates and follow-up cognitive screening scores were analyzed. ResultsGBA1 mutation carriers had a two-fold increased risk of death (HR = 1.999), while APOE status did not independently affect survival. In a subset of patients with available clinical data (N = 63), carriers of the APOE epsilon 4 allele showed faster cognitive deterioration, while GBA1 mutation carriers also declined more rapidly albeit not significantly. Conclusion Understanding the genetic effects on survival and progression is crucial for patient counseling and inclusion in clinical trials. (c) 2024 The Author(s). Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

The present study examined the longitudinal reciprocal relationships between subjective age (SA) and the two personality traits of Extraversion and Neuroticism, in latest life. Additionally, we assessed the potential role of positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) within these pathways. We interviewed 224 Israeli older adults (aged 63-94), living in assisted living or the community, once a year for three consecutive years (average age 81.14 at Time 1 [T1]). Participants reported their SA and completed measures of personality and affect at each of these interviews. Data analysis revealed distinct pathways leading from SA at T1 to personality at Time 3 (T3) through affect at Time 2 (T2). No similar reciprocal effects through affect were observed from personality at T1 to SA at T3. The findings contribute to our understanding of the underlying mechanism through which SA predicts personality changes by highlighting the indirect effect through affect. We suggest that subjective perceptions of aging could potentially contribute to late-life personality.

The present study examines whether age of second language acquisition, duration of exposure to that language, and chronological age determine vocabulary knowledge in 214 Russian-Hebrew bilinguals (ages 19-80, immigration ages 1-46, and exposure duration 7-63 years). Participants reported their language background and completed a multiplechoice vocabulary test in Hebrew, alongside other objective tests of Russian and Hebrew proficiency. While vocabulary scores were below age-matched norms for native Hebrew speakers, they were similar to those of younger native speakers matching in exposure duration. Raw vocabulary scores were similar whether participants immigrated up to age 15 or after that age, although results indicated a negative association between age of immigration and vocabulary scores. A positive association emerged between exposure duration and vocabulary scores, and when analyzing all measures together, age of immigration did not predict vocabulary scores, whereas exposure duration was its main determinant. We suggest that bilingualism itself does not cause a vocabulary gap, and that bilinguals' vocabulary knowledge in their second language improves with exposure, as it does in native speakers throughout adulthood. The study emphasizes that learning a foreign language requires extensive exposure and that vocabulary learning is a lifelong process.

Judging the perspective of others often requires ignoring one's own accessible knowledge. Aging increases reliance on the most available knowledge and may decrease the adjustment of this knowledge to adopt another perspective. Using a dominant language also decreases control demands, while using a nondominant language promotes deliberation. We examined whether aging and language dominance shape the way in which individuals judge someone else's interpretation of ambiguous messages. Russian-Hebrew bilinguals (N = 237, ages 19-80) read 20 ambiguous messages and judged how a recipient would interpret them. Half of the texts contained information that suggested that the message was sincere, and half of the texts contained information that implied that the message was sarcastic. This information was available only to the participant and should not have affected the recipient's interpretation. An egocentric bias emerged in both languages since participants could not ignore their own knowledge when judging the recipient's perspective. Aging was associated with a greater bias, but the results were similar in both languages. A second study included 60 younger (ages 18-39) and 62 older (ages 60-80) Israeli-born participants, who performed the same task as well as a flanker task (i.e., judging the direction of a central arrow flanked by congruent and incongruent distractors). Age interacted with the egocentric bias, but there was no correlation between the flanker effect and perspective judgment. Thus, decreased inhibition, as measured by the flanker task, cannot account for the egocentric bias. We suggest that the findings reflect difficulty in overriding highly accessible information, especially in older age. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The solution and verification of single-digit multiplication problems vary in speed and accuracy. The current study examines whether the number of different digits in a problem accounts for this variance. In Experiment 1, 41 participants solved all 2-9 multiplication problems. In Experiment 2, 43 participants verified these problems. In Experiment 3, 26 participants solved 10 problems that differed in shared-digit network (SDN) size and matched in problem size. In Experiment 4, 24 participants verified these matched sets. Results show faster and more accurate responses to problems that include fewer different digits relative to problems with more different digits, and faster and more accurate responses to problems whose SDN is small relative to problems whose SDN is large. We thus show that the number of different digits in a problem, including the operands and the solution, determines the speed and accuracy of its solution and verification. This parsimonious account also explains why responses to five and tie problems, which include fewer different digits relative to nonfive and nontie problems, are faster and more accurate than responses to other problems. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Analyzing the cognitive impact of aggressive immunotherapy protocol in Susac syndrome rehabilitation.

Abstract Background Susac syndrome (SuS) is a rare autoimmune disorder mediated by the occlusion of micro-blood vessels in the brain, retina, and inner ear. Approximately 15% of cases present with the classic triad of CNS dysfunction, visual disturbances, and sensorineural hearing loss. While the literature is abundant about the severe, acute encephalopathy of SuS, not much is known about the extent of cognitive sequela in the post-era of efficient immunomodulatory treatment. Methods We report global cognitive function using a battery of cognitive tests in ten recovering SuS patients with an average of 2.9 (SD = 1.41) years post-disease onset. Results Patients showed intact delayed memory (both verbal and non-verbal) but below-average scores on tests of executive functions, and deficits in attention and copying. Results are discussed in light of the initial severity and extent of corpus callosum involvement on brain MRI. Conclusions study results suggest that the main cognitive sequela of SuS involves deficits in visual attention and executive functions possibly due to Corpus Callosum involvement. Additionally, this report supports a favorable prognosis for patients with SuS who receive a fast and efficacious immunomodulatory treatment protocol suggested in 2018.

This research examines anthropomorphism by testing the values that people attribute to electronic devices. We ask four main questions: Do people attribute human values to devices; Do devices differ in their value profiles; What underlies the attribution of values to devices; and Do individual and social differences affect these attributions. In Study 1, participants (N = 265) attributed Schwartz's 10 basic human values to devices, reported their personal value priorities, as well as the frequency and difficulty in using each device. In Study 2, participants (N = 231) attributed values to devices, and responses were analyzed by age. Results show that people attribute human values to electronic devices, and that each device has a unique value profile. Anthropomorphizing devices reflects social consensus as to the symbolic meaning of each device, rather than projection of personal values or frequency of device use. Members of social groups share device values and differ from members of other groups.

Previous research has demonstrated conflicting findings concerning orthographic access in older age. The current study examines whether older adults rely more heavily on stored knowledge while spelling, through testing of word concreteness. Forty-one younger (age 20–29), 41 middle age (age 45–55), and 40 healthy older adults (age 70–80) spelled 60 concrete and 60 abstract Hebrew words from dictation. Coding distinguished between homophonic errors that involved the use of a phonologically plausible letter and non-homophonic errors that could indicate working memory difficulties. All participants spelled more concrete than abstract words correctly, the two younger age groups spelled more words correctly than did the older adults, and there was an interaction between condition and age, with a greater concreteness effect in the oldest group. Additionally, younger adults made more homophonic errors than did older adults, whereas older adults made significantly more non-homophonic errors than the other two groups. We suggest that older adults’ misspellings do not reflect impairment in activating orthographic representations, but difficulties in the execution of spelling. The study provides evidence for an aging-related decreased use of phoneme-to-grapheme conversion rules in spelling (e.g., sub-lexical route), alongside increased reliance on stored orthographic knowledge (e.g., lexical route).

Background Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) is the most common prion disease in humans causing a rapidly progressive neurological decline and dementia and is invariably fatal. The familial forms (genetic CJD, gCJD) are caused by mutations in the PRNP gene encoding for the prion protein (PrP). In Israel, there is a large cluster of gCJD cases, carriers of an E200K mutation in the PRNP gene, and therefore the largest population of at-risk individuals in the world. The mutation is not necessarily sufficient for the formation and accumulation of the pathological prion protein (PrPsc), suggesting that other, genetic and non-genetic factors affect the age at symptoms onset. Here we present the protocol of a cross-sectional and longitudinal natural history study of gCJD patients and first-degree relatives of gCJD patients, aiming to identify biological markers of preclinical CJD and risk factors for phenoconversion. Methods The study has two groups: Patients diagnosed with gCJD, and first-degree healthy relatives (HR) (both carriers and non-carriers of the E200K mutation in the PRNP gene) of patients diagnosed with gCJD. At baseline, and at the end of every year, healthy participants are invited for an "in-depth" visit, which includes a clinical evaluation, blood and urine collection, gait assessment, brain MRI, lumbar puncture (LP), and Polysomnography (PSG). At 6 months from baseline, and then halfway through each year, participants are invited for a "brief" visit, which includes a clinical evaluation, short cognitive assessment, and blood and urine collection. gCJD patients will be invited for one "in- depth" visit, similar to the baseline visit of healthy relatives. Discussion This continuous follow-up of the participants and the frequent assessments will allow early identification and diagnosis in case of conversion into disease. The knowledge generated from this study is likely to advance the understanding of the underlying clinicopathological processes that occur at the very beginning of CJD, as well as potential genetic and environmental risk factors for the development of the disease, therefore advancing the development of safe and efficient interventions. Trial registration The study is an observational study. It has registered retrospectively in https://clinicaltrials.gov/ and has been assigned an identification number NCT05746715.

OBJECTIVES:This study aimed to examine which verbal fluency task is most useful in assessing adolescents with reading disorders (RD).METHOD:Eighty-three Hebrew-speaking adolescents (ages 12-15), 42 of them with RD, completed semantic and phonemic fluency tasks, and their scores were converted to standardized scores according to population norms.RESULTS:Scores on the semantic task were similar in the RD and the control group, unlike scores on the phonemic task, which were significantly lower in the RD group. The RD group demonstrated higher semantic than phonemic scores, unlike the control group whose standardized scores on both tasks were similar. Phonemic but not semantic fluency scores predicted spelling scores within the RD group.CONCLUSIONS:Adolescents with RD have no difficulty on a semantic fluency task, but perform below expected age-matched levels on the phonemic fluency task. To document this task-difference, practitioners must administer both fluency tasks when assessing RD.

This cross-sectional study examined whether views of aging (VoA) relate to subjective cognitive complaints in two separate cohorts of older adults. Ageist attitudes, attitudes to aging (psychological loss, physical change, and psychological growth), subjective age, and subjective successful aging were examined. A moderating effect of chronological age was also examined. Samples included 572 adults aged 50 or older (Sample 1; mean age = 67.63, SD = 11.39, 49.4% female) and 224 adults aged 65 or older (Sample 2; mean age = 81.50, SD = 6.61, 75.3% female). More negative VoA (higher ageist attitudes, lower psychological growth, lower physical change, older subjective age, and less successful aging) were associated with more subjective cognitive complaints after controlling for covariates. An increase in chronological age strengthened some of these associations. Findings suggest that improving dimensions of VoA may have a complementary positive effect on subjective cognitive complaints in older adults.

Objectives: This study examined the longitudinal relationships between subjective age (SA) and future functional status in later life, via depressive symptoms. Additionally, we assessed the role of subjective nearness to death (SNtD) as a potential moderator within these pathways. Methods: Older adults (average age 81.14 years at T1) were interviewed once a year for 3 consecutive years (N = 224 at T1, N = 178 at T2, and N = 164 at T3). Participants reported their SA, SNtD, depressive symptoms, and functional status. Additionally, grip strength was employed as an objective measure of functional status. Results: Data analysis revealed distinct pathways leading from T1 SA to T3 functional status through T2 depressive symptoms. Moreover,T1 SNtD was found to significantly moderate most of these indirect pathways, so that the mediation model of T1 SA-T2 depressive symptoms-T3 functional status was mostly significant among those who felt closer to death. Discussion: The findings contribute to our understanding of the underlying mechanism through which SA predicts long-term functioning sequelae by underscoring the indirect effect of depressive symptoms. They further indicate the importance of gauging the effects of SNtD on these longitudinal relationships. Present results may further contribute to establishing an integrative model for predicting long-term functional outcomes based on older adults' earlier subjective views of aging.

BACKGROUNDVocabulary scores increase until approximately age 65 years and then remain stable or decrease slightly, unlike scores on tests of other cognitive abilities that decline significantly with age.AIMSTo review the findings on ageing-related changes in vocabulary, and to discuss four methodological issues: research design; test type; measurement; and vocabulary ability as a proxy for general intelligence.MAIN CONTRIBUTIONA discussion of cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs shows that cohort membership accounts for some but not all ageing-related changes in vocabulary, and that drop-out and test-retest effects do not alter conclusions regarding these changes. Test type affects age trends in vocabulary, and if researchers use only one test, they should choose a multiple-choice synonym test. While some authors suggest that vocabulary tests do not measure the same underlying ability in younger and older adults, more research of this suggestion is needed. A brief examination of the use of vocabulary ability as a proxy for general intelligence in healthy ageing and for premorbid abilities in dementia indicates that such practice is often questionable.CONCLUSIONSVocabulary knowledge increases through the mid-60s regardless of measurement method. However, there is little information on how word knowledge serves other verbal skills in old age, how and when adults learn new words, or how much exposure is necessary for meanings to remain in storage for a lifetime. Research of these issues may require new methodologies, as well as novel theoretical accounts of ageing-related effects on vocabulary.WHAT THIS PAPER ADDSWhat is already known on this subject Unlike many cognitive abilities that decline with ageing, vocabulary knowledge continues to increase until approximately age 65, and then remains stable or decreases slightly. These findings have been replicated in different research designs and across languages. What this paper adds to existing knowledge The article presents a summary of findings on changes in vocabulary across adulthood, and a discussion of four key methodological issues: research design, test type, measurement, and the use of vocabulary ability as a proxy for general intelligence. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? To better understand changes in vocabulary knowledge across adulthood, clinicians must be aware of methodological considerations that affect the field. Such considerations have direct clinical implications regarding the choice of vocabulary tests and their use as a proxy for other abilities in both healthy older adults and in individuals with dementia.

Previous research has assumed that all types of semantic knowledge are similarly affected by aging. We investigate whether knowledge of vocabulary and math concepts show comparable lifetime change. A sample of 252 participants aged 17-91 completed two multiple-choice tasks that examined knowledge of infrequent word meanings and knowledge of basic math concepts. Up to age 64, vocabulary scores improved, whereas math scores remained stable. After that age, vocabulary scores remained stable, while math scores declined. We suggest that the fact that the learning and use of infrequent vocabulary are incidental, incremental, and contextual contributes to maintenance of word knowledge into old age. In contrast, learning of basic math concepts occurs relatively early in life in an intentional manner, and both learning and use of these concepts involve constrained contexts. Thus, the nature of the acquisition and use of semantic knowledge across the lifespan affects its fate in old age.