Various environmental factors have been proposed, such as soil moisture levels, carbon, and nitrate sources to affect the abundance of nitrate reducing (NR) and denitrifying (DN) bacteria. In this study, the strength of the association of the abundance of NR and DN bacteria with various environmental factors is estimated using multivariate statistics. Soil samples were collected from tallgrass prairie soils that had been contaminated with crude oil or brine (e.g. salt water) up to 10 years previously and from parallel uncontaminated sites. The abundance of culturable NR and DN bacteria in the soil samples was estimated by 5-tube MPN method using nitrate broth, while total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), sodium chloride, nitrate, and moisture were measured in the contaminated and the parallel uncontaminated sites. Viable heterotrophic bacteria and NR and DN bacteria from all sites were obtained from samples with a broad range of soil moisture (around 10-30% water/g soil) regardless of the source (e.g. site) of the isolates. Our results showed that the abundance of NR and DN bacteria from the contaminated sites was not less than that from the uncontaminated sites and reflected soil moisture, with greater bacterial numbers from wetter soils. Also, current remediation treatments (e.g. nitrate, hay, watering) of contaminated sites sometimes, but not consistently, were associated with greater abundance of NR and DN bacteria. Therefore, no long-term effect of contamination on the abundance of NR and DN bacteria was shown.

Adaptive site management and aggressive bioremediation in the source zone of a complex chlorinated dense nonaqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) site reduced total chlorinated hydrocarbon mass discharge by nearly 80%. Successful anaerobic bioremediation of chlorinated hydrocarbons can be impaired by inadequate concentrations of electron donors, competing electron acceptors, specific inhibitors such as chloroform, and potentially by high contaminant concentrations associated with residual DNAPL. At the study site, the fractured bedrock aquifer was impacted by a mixture of chlorinated solvents and associated daughter products. Concentrations of 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane (1,1,2,2-TeCA), 1,1,2-trichloroethane (1,1,2-TCA), and 1,2-dichloroethane (1,2-DCA) were on the order of 100 to 1000mg/L. Chloroform was present as a co-contaminant and background sulfate concentrations were approximately 400mg/L. Following propylene glycol injections, concentrations of organohalide-respiring bacteria including Dehalococcoides and Dehalogenimonas spp. increased by two to three orders of magnitude across most of the source area. Statistical analysis indicated that reaching volatile fatty acid concentrations greater than 1000mg/L and depleting sulfate to concentrations less than 50mg/L were required to achieve a Dehalococcoides concentration greater than the 10(4)cells/mL recommended for generally effective reductive dechlorination. In a limited area, chloroform concentrations greater than 5mg/L inhibited growth of Dehalococcoides populations despite the availability of electron donor and otherwise appropriate geochemical conditions. After implementing a groundwater recirculation system targeting the inhibited area, chloroform concentrations decreased permitting significant increases in concentrations of Dehalococcoides and vinyl chloride reductase gene copies.

Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) is a serious problem that impacts nearly all industries and exacts a severe toll in terms of operating costs, loss of production, deterioration of capital equipment and the consequences of corrosion related failures. While a proactive step, monitoring for MIC-associated microorganisms is often hindered by the fact that sampling methods may not capture key members of the microbial community involved in MIC (sampling biases) and current reliance on conventional culture-dependent methods may underestimate and oversimplify the problem (cultivation bias). Molecular biological tools based on analysis of DNA extracted directly from field samples circumvent the limitations of culture-dependent methods. However, sampling biases must also be addressed in order to ensure that molecular analyses truly provide more accurate and comprehensive MIC evaluation. We have developed a method for sampling layers of a corrosion coupon biofilm using an aramid polymer to capture biofilm organisms as a function of depth while conserving their spatial orientation for a variety of analytical techniques. In the current study, a procedure was developed for DNA extraction from these aramid polymer imprints of layers of a corrosion coupon biofilm. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was then used to quantify total bacteria and specific microorganisms commonly implicated in MIC. The development of this sampling method and extraction procedure will permit the DNA based analyses (qPCR, microarrays, and even high-throughput sequencing) for the most direct characterization of microbial communities of corrosive biofilms.

A microbial survey of hydrocarbon‐impacted groundwater and vadose zone at a Midwestern refinery employed molecular biological tools to elucidate the microbial processes involved in bioremediation occurring in the subsurface. qPCR analysis of bio‐traps incubated in groundwater indicated that a large and diverse microbial community was present throughout the site and suggested that mechanisms of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene ( BTEX ) biodegradation included aerobic oxidation, sulfate reduction, methanogenesis, and possibly Fe +3 reduction. To assess the role of vadose zone microorganisms in hydrocarbon attenuation, RNA was extracted from soil core samples, and reverse transcriptase‐ qPCR ( RT‐qPCR ) analysis indicated that microbial activity in the vadose zone generally increased with depth, likely supported by hydrocarbons and methane volatilizing from the groundwater. Stable isotope probing ( SIP ) with 13 C 6 ‐benzene provided direct evidence of benzene biodegradation in six of the eight wells studied. The highest levels of 13 C were detected in dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) extracted from the two monitoring wells closest to the river. The influx of nutrients and oxygen coming from the river may help to maintain a robust population of hydrocarbon degraders in these wells. While qPCR analysis indicated that microorganisms with the genetic potential for hydrocarbon biodegradation were ubiquitous at the site, RT‐qPCR and SIP results were used to refine the site conceptual model by identifying areas where that genetic potential was actively being expressed and locations where biodegradation was lagging.

Although the anaerobic biodegradation of methyl tert ‐butyl ether ( MTBE ) and tert ‐butyl alcohol ( TBA ) has been documented in the laboratory and the field, knowledge of the microorganisms and mechanisms involved is still lacking. In this study, DNA ‐stable isotope probing ( SIP ) was used to identify microorganisms involved in anaerobic fuel oxygenate biodegradation in a sulfate‐reducing MTBE and TBA plume. Microorganisms were collected in the field using Bio‐Sep® beads amended with 13 C 5 ‐MTBE , 13 C 1 ‐MTBE (only methoxy carbon labeled), or 13 C 4 ‐TBA . 13 C‐DNA and 12 C‐DNA extracted from the Bio‐Sep beads were cloned and 16S rRNA gene sequences were used to identify the indigenous microorganisms involved in degrading the methoxy group of MTBE and the tert ‐butyl group of MTBE and TBA . Results indicated that microorganisms were actively degrading 13 C ‐labeled MTBE and TBA in situ and the 13 C was incorporated into their DNA . Several sequences related to known MTBE ‐ and TBA ‐degraders in the Burkholderiales and the Sphingomonadales orders were detected in all three 13 C clone libraries and were likely to be primary degraders at the site. Sequences related to sulfate‐reducing bacteria and iron‐reducers, such as Geobacter and Geothrix , were only detected in the clone libraries where MTBE and TBA were fully labeled with 13 C , suggesting that they were involved in processing carbon from the tert ‐butyl group. Sequences similar to the Pseudomonas genus predominated in the clone library where only the methoxy carbon of MTBE was labeled with 13 C . It is likely that members of this genus were secondary degraders cross‐feeding on 13 C ‐labeled metabolites such as acetate.

The effect of phenol concentration on phenol biodegradation at an industrial site in the south of Wales, United Kingdom, was investigated using standard Bio-Sep((R)) Bio-Traps((R)) and Bio-Traps((R)) coupled with stable isotope probing (SIP). Unlike many C-13-amendments used in SIP studies (such as hydrocarbons) that physically and reversibly adsorb to the activated carbon component of the Bio-Sep((R)) beads, phenol is known to irreversibly chemisorb to activated carbon. Bio-Traps((R)) were deployed for 32 days in nine site groundwater monitoring wells representing a wide range of phenol concentrations. Bio-Traps((R)) amended with C-13-phenol were deployed together with non-amended Bio-Traps((R)) in three wells.Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis of Bio- Traps((R)) post- deployment indi-cated an inhibitory effect of increasing phenol concentration on both total eubacteria and aerobic phenol-utilizing bacteria as represented by the concentration of phenol hydroxylase gene. De-spite the chemisorption of phenol to the Bio-Sep((R)) beads, activated carbon stable isotope analysis showed incorporation of C-13 into biomass and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in each SIP Bio-Trap((R)) indicating that chemisorbed amendments are bioavailable. However, there was a clear effect of phenol concentration on C-13 incorporation in both biomass and DIC confirming phenol inhibition. These results suggest that physical reductions of the phenol concentrations in some areas of the plume will be required before biodegradation of phenol can proceed at a reasonable rate. (C) 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

A model flow cell system was designed to investigate pitting corrosion in pipelines associated with microbial communities. A microbial inoculum producing copious amounts of H2S was enriched from an oil pipeline biofilm sample. Reservoirs containing a nutrient solution and the microbial inoculum were pumped continuously through six flow cells containing mild steel corrosion coupons. Two cells received corrosion inhibitor "A", two received corrosion inhibitor "B", and two ("untreated") received no additional chemicals. Coupons were removed after 1 month and analyzed for corrosion profiles and biofilm microbial communities. Coupons from replicate cells showed a high degree of similarity in pitting parameters and in microbial community profiles, as determined by 16S rRNA gene sequence libraries but differed with treatment regimen, suggesting that the corrosion inhibitors differentially affected microbial species. Viable microbial biomass values were more than 10-fold higher for coupons from flow cells treated with corrosion inhibitors than for coupons from untreated flow cells. The total number of pits > 10 mils diameter and maximum pitting rate were significantly correlated with each other and the total number of pits with the estimated abundance of sequences classified as Desulfomicrobium. The maximum pitting rate was significantly correlated with the sum of the estimated abundance of Desulfomicrobium plus Clostridiales, and with the sum of the estimated abundance of Desulfomicrobium plus Betaproteobacteria. The lack of significant correlation with the estimated abundance of Deltaproteobacteria suggests not all Deltaproteobacteria species contribute equally to microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) and that it is not sufficient to target one bacterial group when monitoring for MIC.

Bio-Trap((R))-based in situ microcosm studies were conducted to evaluate EHC-M-(R) stimulated degradation of mono-, di-, and trichlorobenzenes in anaerobic groundwater at a site in Michigan. The data show that the EHC-M-(R) amendment stimulated an overall increase in microbial activity and a shift in the microbial community structure, indicating more reduced conditions. Stable isotope probing with C-13(6)-chlorobenzene demonstrated attenuation of chlorobenzene and subsequent separation and characterization of the C-12-and C-13-deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) fractions were used to identify the attenuating microbes. These data clearly show the participation of an obligate aerobe in the chlorobenzene biodegradation process.Decreases in concentrations of trichlorobenzenes were also observed in comparison to a control. Due to the thermodynamically favorable reducing conditions stimulated by EHC-M-(R), the mechanism of degradation of the trichlorobenzenes is presumed to be reductive dehalogenation. However, on the strength of the DNA-based analysis of microbial community structure, concurrent microaerophilic degradation of chlorobenzene or itsmetabolites was definitively demonstrated and cannot be ruled out for the other chlorobenzenes. (C) 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Two pilot tests of an aerobic in situ bioreactor (ISBR) have been conducted at field sites contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons. The two sites differed with respect to hydrocarbon concentrations. At one site, concentrations were low but persistent, and at the other site concentrations were high enough to be inhibitory to biodegradation. The ISBR unit is designed to enhance biodegradation of hydrocarbons by stimulating indigenous microorganisms. This approach builds on existing Bio-Sep((R)) bead technology, which provides a matrix that can be rapidly colonized by the active members of the microbial community and serves to concentrate indigenous degraders. Oxygen and nutrients are delivered to the bioreactor to maintain conditions favorable for growth and reproduction, and contaminated groundwater is treated as it is circulated through the bed of Bio-Sep((R)) beads. Groundwater moving through the system also transports degraders released from Bio-Sep((R)) beads away from the bioreactor, potentially increasing biodegradation rates throughout the aquifer. Groundwater sampling, Bio-Traps, and molecular biological tools were used to assess ISBR performance during the two pilot tests.Groundwater monitoring indicated that contaminant concentrations decreased at both sites, and the microbial data suggested that these decreases were due to degradation by indigenous microorganisms rather than dilution or dispersion mechanisms. Taken together, these lines of evidence showed that the ISBR system effectively increased the number and activity of indigenous microbial degraders and enhanced bioremediation at the test sites. (C) 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Aquifer microbial communities can be investigated using Bio-traps(R) ("bio-traps"), passive samplers containing Bio-Sep(R) beads ("bio-beads") that are deployed in monitoring wells to be colonized by bacteria delivered via groundwater flow through the well. When bio-beads are "baited" with organic contaminants enriched in C-13, stable isotope probing allows assessment of the composition and activity of the microbial community. This study used an ex situ system fed by groundwater continuously extracted from an adjacent monitoring well within an experimentally-created aerobic zone treating a tert-butyl alcohol (TBA) plume. The goal was to evaluate aspects of bio-trap performance that cannot be studied quantitatively in situ. The measured groundwater flow through a bio-trap housing suggests that such traps might typically "sample" about 1.8 L per month. The desorption of TBA or methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) bait from bio-traps during a typical deployment duration of 6 weeks was approximately 90% and 45%, respectively, of the total initial bait load, with initially high rate of mass loss that decreased markedly after a few days. The concentration of TBA in groundwater flowing by the TBA-baited bio-beads was estimated to be as high as 3400 mg/L during the first few days, which would be expected to inhibit growth of TBA-degrading microbes. Initial inhibition was also implied for the MTBE-baited bio-trap, but at lower concentrations and for a shorter time. After a few days, concentrations in groundwater flowing through the bio-traps dropped below inhibitory concentrations but remained 4-5 orders of magnitude higher than TBA or MTBE concentrations within the aquifer at the experimental site. Desorption from the bio-beads during ex situ deployment occurred at first as predicted by prior sorption analyses of bio-beads but with apparent hysteresis thereafter, possibly due to mass transfer limitations caused by colonizing microbes. These results suggest that TBA- or MTBE-baited bio-traps could be baited at lower initial total mass loading with no detriment to trapping ability. The bio-traps were able to collect detectable amounts of microbial DNA and thus allow some insight into the sparse microbial community present in the aquifer during remediation of the low concentration plume. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

An intrinsic biodegradation study involving the design and implementation of innovative environmental diagnostic tools was conducted to evaluate whether monitored natural attenuation (MNA) could be considered as part of the remedial strategy to treat an aerobic aquifer contaminated with 1,4-dioxane and trichloroethene (TCE). In this study, advanced molecular biological and stable isotopic tools were applied to confirm in situ intrinsic biodegradation of 1,4-dioxane and TCE. Analyses of Bio-Trap® samplers and groundwater samples collected from monitoring wells verified the abundance of bacteria and enzymes capable of aerobically degrading TCE and 1,4-dioxane. Furthermore, phospholipid fatty acid analysis with stable isotope probes (PLFA-SIP) of the microbial community validated the ability for microbial degradation of TCE and 1,4-dioxane. Compound specific isotope analysis (CSIA) of groundwater samples for TCE resulted in δ13C values that indicated likely biodegradation of TCE in three of the four monitoring wells sampled. Results of the MNA evaluation showed that enzymes capable of aerobically degrading TCE and 1,4-dioxane were present, abundant, and active in the aquifer. Taken together, these results provide direct evidence of the occurrence of TCE and 1,4-dioxane biodegradation at the study site, supporting the selection of MNA as part of the final remedy at some point in the future.

Lignin is often the most difficult portion of plant biomass to degrade, with fungi generally thought to dominate during late stage decomposition. Lignin in feedstock plant material represents a barrier to more efficient plant biomass conversion and can also hinder enzymatic access to cellulose, which is critical for biofuels production. Tropical rain forest soils in Puerto Rico are characterized by frequent anoxic conditions and fluctuating redox, suggesting the presence of lignin-degrading organisms and mechanisms that are different from known fungal decomposers and oxygen-dependent enzyme activities. We explored microbial lignin-degraders by burying bio-traps containing lignin-amended and unamended biosep beads in the soil for 1, 4, 13 and 30 weeks. At each time point, phenol oxidase and peroxidase enzyme activity was found to be elevated in the lignin-amended versus the unamended beads, while cellulolytic enzyme activities were significantly depressed in lignin-amended beads. Quantitative PCR of bacterial communities showed more bacterial colonization in the lignin-amended compared to the unamended beads after one and four weeks, suggesting that the lignin supported increased bacterial abundance. The microbial community was analyzed by small subunit 16S ribosomal RNA genes using microarray (PhyloChip) and by high-throughput amplicon pyrosequencing based on universal primers targeting bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic communities. Community trends were significantly affected by time and the presence of lignin on the beads. Lignin-amended beads have higher relative abundances of representatives from the phyla Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, Acidobacteria and Proteobacteria compared to unamended beads. This study suggests that in low and fluctuating redox soils, bacteria could play a role in anaerobic lignin decomposition.

INTRODUCTION Depending on site conditions including contaminant concentrations, availability of electron donors or acceptors, groundwater velocity, and proximity to potential receptors, monitored natural attenuation (MNA) can be an effective remediation strategy. However, MNA is sometimes viewed as a “do nothing” solution in which decreases in contaminant concentrations result from physical processes (e.g. dilution) rather than biodegradation. Ultimately, the feasibility and regulatory acceptance of MNA as a remediation strategy rests upon demonstrating contaminant biodegradation under existing site conditions.

Increasingly, molecular biological tools, most notably quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), are being employed to provide a more comprehensive assessment of bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbons and fuel oxygenates. While qPCR enumeration of key organisms or catabolic genes can aid in site management decisions, evaluation of site activities conducted to stimulate biodegradation would ideally include a direct measure of gene expression to infer activity. In the current study, reverse-transcriptase (RT) qPCR was used to monitor gene expression to evaluate the effectiveness of an oxygen infusion system to promote biodegradation of BTEX and MTBE. During system operation, dissolved oxygen (DO) levels at the infusion points were greater than 30 mg/L, contaminant concentrations decreased, and transcription of two aromatic oxygenase genes and Methylibium petroleiphilum PM1-like 16S rRNA copies increased by as many as 5 orders of magnitude. Moreover, aromatic oxygenase gene transcription and PM1 16s rRNA increased at downgradient locations despite low DO levels even during system operation. Conversely, target gene expression substantially decreased when the system was deactivated. RT-qPCR results also corresponded to increases in benzene and MTBE attenuation rates. Overall, monitoring gene expression complemented traditional groundwater analyses and conclusively demonstrated that the oxygen infusion system promoted BTEX and MTBE biodegradation.

We examined the community composition of microbes that colonized atrazine-containing beads buried in agricultural soils that differed in atrazine treatment history. Bacterial abundance was 5–40-fold greater in atrazine-fortified beads. In beads containing 20mgatrazinekg−1 buried in soil with a history of atrazine application (conditioned soil), the abundance of Actinobacteria increased approximately 80-fold whereas in control soil, Actinobacteria were enriched only 10-fold and the gamma-Proteobacteria and Planctomycetes increased by 60- and 25-fold, respectively. The gamma-Proteobacteria were enriched by 120- and 230-fold in beads containing 200mgatrazinekg−1 in conditioned and control soil, respectively. The results demonstrate that BioSep® beads are a suitable matrix for recruiting a diverse subset of the bacterial community involved in atrazine degradation.

Author(s): DeAngelis, Kristen M.; Allgaier, Martin; Silver, Whendee L.; Chavarria, Yaucin; Fortney, Julian; Hugenholtz, Phillip; Simmons, Blake A.; Hazen, Terry C.; Sublette, K. | Abstract: Lignin in feedstock plant material represents a barrier to more efficient plant-to-biomass conversion and can also hinder enzymatic access to cellulose. For this reason, it is critical to develop a way to degrade recovered lignin for next generation feedstock-derived biofuels. While the best-known ligninases are fungal, bacteria are more amenable to emerging cellulosic biofuels technologies. Tropical rain forest soils in Puerto Rico are likely dominated by bacterial decomposers because of the frequent anoxic conditions and fluctuating redox characteristic of these soils, so we focused here to search for novel bacterial lignase producers. To do this, we buried bug traps containing lignin-amended and unamended biosep beads in the soil and incubated them for 1, 4, 13 and 30 weeks. At each time point, phenol oxidase and peroxidase enzyme activity was found to be elevated in the lignin-amended versus the unamended beads, while cellulolytic enzyme activities were significantly depressed in lignin-amended beads. Quantitative PCR of bacterial communities showed more colonization in the lignin-amended compared to the unamended beads after one and four weeks, which attenuated over the course of the incubation. The microbial community was analyzed by microarray (PhyloChip) and by pyrotag sequencing of the community16S ribosomal RNA genes. Community trends were strongly driven by time but also lignin-amendment to the beads. These techniques also allow us to identify which taxa were increased in lignin-amended compared to unamended beads, which included representatives from the phyla Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, Acidobacterial and Proteobacteria.

Biofilms characteristic of aquifer conditions can be rapidly and efficiently collected using in situ microcosms or “bio‐traps” containing Bio‐Sep® beads (25% Nomex and 75% powdered activated carbon [PAC]) (University of Tulsa, Tulsa, Oklahoma). Bio‐Sep beads can be “baited” with a variety of organic compounds by vapor‐phase adsorption onto the PAC component of the beads under reduced pressure. In the aquifer, the bait or the amendment does not substantially leach into the aquifer but is available to the bacteria as a carbon source within the bead. When the organic compound is labeled with 13C, phospholipids may be extracted from bead biofilms postincubation and derived fatty acid methyl esters analyzed for 13C. Incorporation of 13C into biomass provides proof of current in situ degradation potential. We have now Bio‐Sep beads with 13C‐labeled methyl‐tert‐butyl ether (MTBE) and tert‐butyl alcohol (TBA). Deployment of these 13C‐amended bio‐traps has been coupled with molecular biological methods and stable isotope probing to demonstrate the biodegradation of MTBE and TBA in an anaerobic gasoline plume in southern California. Nonamended bio‐traps were deployed at the same site as a preexperiment to determine if spatial variations in microbial community structure could be linked to concentrations of oxygenates or other electron donors. Analysis of biofilm phospholipids and DNA from nonamended bio‐traps demonstrated a clear relationship between various aspects of the subsurface microbial community structure and the concentration of TBA. There was no correlation of any phospholipid fatty acid or DNA attributes with the concentrations of MTBE; benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX); or gasoline range total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHg). Deployment of 13C‐MTBE‐ or 13C‐TBA‐amended bio‐traps in the plume clearly demonstrated the degradation of both MTBE and TBA under aquifer conditions through incorporation of 13C into membrane phospholipids.

Tetrachloroethene (PCE)- and trichloroethene (TCE)-impacted sites pose significant challenges even when site characterization activities indicate that biodegradation has occurred naturally. Although site-specific, regulatory, and economic factors play roles in the remedy-selection process, the application of molecular biological tools to the bioremediation field has streamlined the assessment of remedial alternatives and allowed for detailed evaluation of the chosen remedial technology. The case study described here was performed at a PCE-impacted site at which reductive dechlorination of PCE and TCE had led to accumulation of cis-dichlorethene (cis-DCE) with concentrations ranging from approximately 10 to 100 mg/L. Bio-Trap (R) samplers and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) enumeration of Dehalococcoides spp. were used to evaluate three remedial options: monitored natural attenuation, biostimulation with HRC (R), and biostim-ulation with HRC-S (R). Dehalococcoides populations in HRC-S-amended Bio-Traps deployed in impacted wells were on the order of 10(3) to 10(4) cells/bead but were below detection limits in most unamended and HRC-amended Bio-Traps. Thus the in situ Bio-Trap study identified biostimulation with HRC-S as the recommended approach, which was further evaluated with a pilot study. After the pilot HRC-S injection, Dehalococcoides populations increased to 10(6) to 10(7) cells/bead, and concentrations of cis-DCE and vinyl chloride decreased with concurrent ethene production. Based on these results, a full-scale HRC-S injection was designed and implemented at the site. As with the pilot study, full-scale HRC-S injection promoted growth of Dehalococcoides spp. and stimulated reductive dechlorination of the daughter products cis-DCE and vinyl chloride. (C) 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.