While innovative designs combining the advantages of screw and cement retention provide both retrievability and passive fit for implant-supported fixed dental prostheses, retrieval becomes challenging with nonparallel implants because of deeper hexagon engagement and antirotational features. This dental technique introduces a sequential intraoral cementation approach to address this limitation. The technique involves engaging each abutment to its hexagon intraorally by cementing the prosthesis first to the most angled implant, removing it extraorally to clean excess cement, and modifying the abutment hexagon into a nonengaging type. Subsequently, the remaining prosthesis is cemented to favorably angled abutments, ensuring both passivity and retrievability. This approach compensates for fabrication discrepancies and enhances the retrievability of these prostheses involving implants with varying angulations, ultimately improving patient comfort and long-term prosthesis maintenance.

PurposeDenture fabrication has shifted from traditional heat-processed and auto-polymerizing materials to computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing (CAD-CAM) milled and printed materials. The monomer in traditional materials can induce an allergic reaction in some patients. With the rise in the edentulous population and increasing demand for the fabrication of dentures, these newer materials should be studied for monomer leaching. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the ratio of residual monomer in materials being used for denture bases: CAD-milled polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), printed denture base resin, heat-processed PMMA, and auto-polymerizing PMMA comparatively.Materials and MethodsMilled, printed, heat-activated, and auto-polymerizing denture base specimens (n = 3 for each group, each test run three times) were fabricated according to manufacturer recommendations. Specimens were first immersed in deuterated chloroform (CDCl3), a deuterated organic solvent, to evaluate monomer leaching and to observe physical properties of the materials. NMR spectroscopy was used to evaluate the dissolution of materials and residual monomer to crosslinked polymer ratios at 1, 4, and 9 days. A second group of specimens was then immersed in deuterium oxide (D2O) to evaluate if the residual monomers would leach out of the system. The solution was then analyzed using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy for 1 month. The deuterated forms of chloroform (CDCl3) and water (D2O) were used to enable sample characterization by NMR.ResultsWhile the heat-processed, auto-polymerizing, and milled specimens possessed residual monomers, no significant monomer leaching was noted in the printed specimen, while immersed in CDCl3. Similarly, the printed specimen was most resistant to dissolution, as compared to the rest; dissolution of the specimen is indicative of little to no cross-linking. No detectable dissolution of monomer was seen when all specimens were immersed in D2O for up to 1 month.ConclusionsResidual monomers were not found in the printed denture material in this study in either CDCl3 or D2O, whereas CAD-milled and traditionally processed denture bases still have residual monomers within their respective systems when immersed in organic solvent. None of the specimens tested leached monomers into D2O.

OBJECTIVE:Measure and compare the mechanical properties, translucency, and fluoride-releasing capabilities of EQUIA Forte HT against Fuji IX GP and ChemFil Rock. MATERIALS AND METHODS:Ten specimens of each material were fabricated for compressive strength (CS), flexural strength (FS), and surface hardness analysis at 24 h and 7 days. The L*a*b* values were measured against a black-and-white background using a spectrophotometer to analyze the translucency parameter (TP). Fluoride release was recorded after 2 months of immersion in distilled water. The mean data was analyzed by 1- and 2-way ANOVA (α = 0.5). RESULTS:EQUIA Forte HT showed higher CS, surface hardness, and FS values (p < 0.05) compared with Fuji IX GIC, while no significant difference was found in FS values between EQUIA Forte HT and Chemfil Rock (p > 0.05). The EQUIA Forte HT exhibited significantly higher translucency in comparison to both ChemFil Rock (p < 0.001) and Fuji IX GICs (p < 0.05). An increase (p > 0.05) of fluoride release was observed for EQUIA Forte HT. CONCLUSION:The EQUIA Forte HT Glass-ionomer cements (GIC) offers enhanced translucency, improved strength, and enhanced fluoride-releasing properties compared to the traditionally used Fuji IX GIC and ChemFil Rock GICs. This material might have a wide range of clinical applications due to its improved strength and optical properties. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE:Glass-ionomer dental restorative materials possess unique advantageous characteristics. However, its poor mechanical and optical properties have typically limited its clinical applications. Efforts to improve these properties have resulted in enhanced GICs. EQUIA Forte HT GIC offers enhanced mechanical and optical properties with potential applications in posterior and anterior restorative procedures.

Background and Objectives: Peri-implantitis is the implant equivalent of gum disease and the associated risk factors are similar to those of periodontal disease, such poor plaque control, smoking, and systemic conditions.Some risk factors are iatrogenic and this review discusses the literature specifically investigating the positive relationship that exists between peri-implantitis and cement-retained implant restorations.Methods: A data-based search was performed by using PubMed database whereby articles published between 2000 and 2021 in English were included in the search with the following key words: peri-implantitis, peri-implant mucositis, excess cement, peri-implant health, screw-retained.It was found that excess dental cement around implant restorations has been correlated with swelling, purulence, bleeding, deeper pockets, peri-implant bone loss, and in extreme cases implant loss.Studies that evaluated the peri-implant tissue response to removal of the excess cement around cement-retained implant restorations observed a stark resolution of clinical and endoscopic signs of peri-implant disease in majority of cases.Key Content and Findings: Although precautions can be taken to minimize the amount of cement extrusion, the risk of peri-implantitis is still concerning with conventional cement-retained implant restorations.Shape memory alloys have been proposed as a viable modality to retain implant prosthetics and restorations.Conclusions: In lieu of cement as the method of retention, the shape-memory implant abutment system has been shown to be applicable to a variety of case complexities and most importantly has no negative effect on peri-implant tissues.This novel alternative is a possible effective method to prevent peri-implantitis instead of treating the disease.

Three squirrel monkeys trained on a variable interval schedule of food presentation were used to examine the interaction between phencyclidine (PCP) and pentobarbital (PB). First, dose-response curves for each drug given alone were obtained. PCP caused small response rate increases at low doses, and a dose-dependent decrease in responding at higher doses. PB caused only dose-dependent decreases in responding. The PB dose-response curve was then redetermined in the presence of four doses of PCP. Little support was found for the hypothesis that PCP enhances the depressant properties of PB. In fact, most dose combinations caused less disruption of responding than expected from simple addition of the effects of each drug given alone. These results are discussed in terms of species differences, measurement of different dependent variables and rate-dependency.

PURPOSE:To evaluate the clinical, radiographic, and prosthetic outcomes of a single custom CAD/CAM abutment system on implants from four manufacturers, with a mean clinical service of 4 years in a retrospective, multicenter case series study.MATERIALS AND METHODS:Adult subjects (n = 142) previously restored with titanium or gold-shaded titanium nitride custom CAD/CAM abutments (Atlantis, Dentsply Sirona; n = 259) connected to implants from four different manufacturers (Dentsply Sirona Implants [AT], Biomet 3i [BM], Nobel Biocare [NB], Straumann [ST]), irrespective of implant-abutment interface, and replacing one or more teeth in any position were recalled for a single-visit examination by calibrated investigators at six university clinics. The primary outcomes evaluated included abutment success and survival; secondary outcomes included assessment of papillae fill, probing pocket depth (PD), bleeding on probing (BOP), marginal bone levels (MBLs), and patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs).RESULTS:Two-hundred fifty-five (98.5%) abutments supported cement-retained restorations, and four (1.5%) abutments supported screw-retained restorations. Forty-two patients had 64 AT implants (25%), 31 patients had 61 BM implants (24%), 26 patients had 50 NB implants (19%), and 43 patients had 84 ST implants (32%). The overall implant-CAD/CAM abutment success rate was 92.66% (95% CI: 88.78%, 95.53%) for all implants examined, and the survival rate was 98.84% (95% CI: 96.65%, 99.76%) for all implants evaluated. The Jemt papillae index demonstrated a minimum of at least 50% to complete fill of the interproximal papillae in 65.0% of sites. PDs had a median value of 3.0 mm, and BOP was present on 19% of abutment surfaces. Mean MBL changes from the time of placement to exam were -0.24 ± 0.99 mm (-4.9 to 2.3; P = .058) for mesial sites and -0.32 ± 0.96 mm (-4.9 to 2.1; P = .000) for distal sites. PROMs expressed 93% of patients reporting good to very good masticatory function, 97% of patients reporting being satisfied or very satisfied with their esthetic outcomes, and 94% of patients indicating that they were satisfied or very satisfied with their overall implant-restorative outcomes.CONCLUSION:This retrospective, multicenter clinical study of FDA 510k-approved titanium CAD/CAM abutments of a single manufacturer on multiple implant systems demonstrated high levels of success and survival as well as stable peri-implant tissue outcomes, reflected by overwhelmingly positive PROMs.

Artifacts from metal restorations can make it challenging or impossible to accurately orient a digital dental cast to cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) scan data for virtual implant planning. A dual scan technique is described that uses an alginate impression with fiducial markers in a stock tray to create a digital dental cast that is precisely oriented to the scan in the same patient coordinate system for surgical guide design.

Background: Dental education is rapidly changing with digital dentistry, particularly in prosthodontics, and augmented reality simulations along with haptic feedback have enhanced this transformation.Results: This article reviews the features of one such device currently being piloted at the University of California, Los Angeles, School of Dentistry. The impact on student training and education is explored.Practical implications: The future of learning in a virtual environment has the potential to transcend geographical boundaries.

Statement of problemInformation on the bond strength of milled polymethyl methacrylate interim restorations when relined with chairside reline materials is lacking.PurposeThe purpose of this in vitro study was to measure the shear bond strength of various combinations of 3 different chairside reline materials bonded to milled polymethyl methacrylate blocks with 3 different types of surface treatments.Materials and methodsUniform blocks (10×10×22 mm) were milled from tooth-colored polymethyl methacrylate disks (Vivid PMMA; Pearson Dental Supply Co). The surface treatments tested were airborne-particle abrasion with 50-μm particle size aluminosilicate, application of acrylic resin monomer (Jet Liquid; Lang Dental Manufacturing Co) for 180 seconds, and airborne-particle abrasion with monomer application. The control groups were blocks with no surface treatment. The chairside reline materials tested were Jet acrylic resin (Jet Powder; Lang Dental Manufacturing Co), bis-acryl resin (Integrity; Dentsply Sirona), and flowable composite resin (Reveal; Bisco). All materials were applied through a Ø1.5×3-mm bonding ring. Ten specimens for each of the 12 groups were tested in a universal testing machine. Load was applied at a crosshead speed of 1 mm/min. Fracture surfaces were then analyzed for cohesive versus adhesive or mixed failure. Data were analyzed using 2-way ANOVA and Tukey-Kramer post hoc analysis (α=.05).ResultsThe mean shear bond strength values ranged from 1.77 ±0.79 MPa to 28.49 ±5.75 MPa. ANOVA revealed that reline material (P<.05), surface treatment (P<.05), and their interactions (P<.05) significantly affected the shear bond strength among the experimental groups. The strongest combination was Jet acrylic resin applied on specimens treated with airborne-particle abrasion and monomer. All 3 failure modalities (adhesive, cohesive, and mixed modes) were observed.ConclusionsOf the materials tested, the most reliable material to bond to milled polymethyl methacrylate was Jet acrylic resin, and the bond strength values were increased substantially when the milled polymethyl methacrylate surface was airborne-particle abraded and monomer was applied.

OBJECTIVE:The Ti-6Al-4V (TAV) alloy is commercially used as a dental implant material. This work seeks to elucidates the origins of degradation of Ti-6Al-4V (TAV) implant alloys that result in peri-implant bone loss. 
Methods: In this work, a combination of microstructure, surface, and solution analyses was utilized to study the corrosion mechanism of the TAV alloy in oral environments. The corrosion of TAV alloys in the F--enriched environment of a crevice was evaluated through nanoscale surface analysis. And, the findings were further rationalized via electrochemical means. 
 RESULTS: Our results suggest the bone loss was caused by crevice corrosion and the consequential release of by-products, and the crevice corrosion was potentially induced by the buildup of corrosive species such as fluorides, which are common additives in dental products. In turn, the corrosion properties of the TAV alloy were evaluated in fluoride enriched environments. Nanoscale analysis of corroded surfaces, carried out using vertical scanning interferometry (VSI) showed that the corrosion susceptibility of the constituent phases dictates the corrosion product species. In specific, the aluminum-rich α phase preferentially dissolves under potential-free conditions and promotes the formation of insoluble Al-Ti oxides. Notably, under conditions of applied potential, oxidative dissolution of the vanadium-rich β phase is favored, and the vanadium release is promoted. 
 SIGNIFICANCE: These findings elucidate the origins of degradation of TAV-implants that result in the release of corrosion by-products into the local biological environment. More important, they offer guidelines for materials design and improvement to prevent this nature of degradation of dental implants.

Digital surgical planning for immediately loaded dental implants can be a predictable and accurate procedure, with the interim prosthesis also designed digitally. If the planning and execution are meticulous, chairside adjustments can be minimized because the outcome should be closely matched to the proposed digital plan. A novel dental implant abutment system made from a shape memory metal could be an answer to the cement versus screw controversy as it uses neither. This new system can provide patients with better esthetics and is biologically favorable.

A case report of a complete arch interim prosthesis executed using digital work flows and with guided implant surgery is presented. The novel shape-memory retained system used to retain the complete dental prosthesis is easily indexed onto the remaining dentition, thereby being both efficient and cost-effective in the short and long term.

With the transition to digital workflows, moving from a digital platform to an articulator for laboratory procedures such as adding porcelain or luting titanium abutments is sometimes required. This report describes a technique to facilitate the transfer of jaw-relation records to a digital mounting template. Once digitally mounted, the casts can be printed with mounting plates attached to the temporomandibular joints in the appropriate orientation. They can then be placed in an articulator and used for layering porcelain or luting titanium abutments for screw-retained restorations.

Statement of problem. Screw- and cement-based retention mechanisms are used to attach prostheses to dental implants; however, each approach can lead to clinical complications such as crown fracturing or peri-implantitis. A novel abutment and prosthesis retention system has been engineered to achieve the esthetics and retention force of cement-based fixation while maintaining the retrievability of screw-retained restorations. Purpose. The purpose of this pilot clinical study was to evaluate the effectiveness of this innovative retention system on posterior tooth restorations. Material and methods. This clinical study, with up to 6 months of follow-up, included 8 participants with posterior osseointegrated implants who met the eligibility criteria to receive the abutment and shape memory sleeve. Radiographs were used to evaluate crown seating. Crown stability was measured using the Periotest, and occlusal analysis was performed using the Tekscan system and shimstock. Peri-implant health was evaluated by probing, and the plaque and gingival indices were recorded. In addition, patient-reported outcomes were recorded. Results. Minimal differences were observed between baseline and endpoint assessment of the plaque and gingival indices, probing depth, and proximal and occlusal contacts. There were no patient-reported problems or complaints about discomfort. The overall peri-implant health remained unchanged from the baseline evaluations for all participants. Proximal contact around the restoration was present at the baseline and at the conclusion of the study for 7 of the participants. Occlusal contact was observed to be either light (5 participants) or holding (3 participants). In addition, visual inspection of retrieved crowns revealed clean surfaces free of macroparticle ingress, and bacterial accumulation at the coping-abutment interface was not detected. Conclusions. The safety and efficacy findings of this pilot clinical study suggest that this new shape memory alloy-based retention system may provide a suitable alternative for implant prosthodontics. The retention system allowed for easy prosthesis seating and retrieval.

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM:A nitinol sleeve that uses shape memory to rapidly unlock dental restorations from implant abutments has been developed to allow prosthesis removal for assessment and maintenance, and clinical treatment has been promising. However, objective studies that evaluate the wear and retention performance after short-term clinical use are lacking.PURPOSE:The purpose of this clinical study was to evaluate the wear and retention performance of a shape-memory abutment system after 6 months of clinical use.MATERIAL AND METHODS:Shape-memory alloy sleeves on posterior osseointegrated implants were retrieved after 6 months of clinical use. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to evaluate the surfaces of the retention sleeve's arms for wear. Uniaxial tensile testing was performed to measure the change in retention force after clinical use. Average retention values of the shape-memory abutment system were compared with previously reported in vitro retention values for definitive and interim cements used in titanium abutment and coping assemblies by using the Welch t test.RESULTS:No evidence of wear, fracture, or chipping was observed during SEM analysis on the shape-memory alloy sleeves. Additionally, no statistically significant difference was found in the median retention force for new (484.5 N) and clinically retrieved (476 N) nitinol sleeve specimens. Compared with a commercially available resin cement, the mean retention force for the control sleeves (480 ±37 N) was higher than that for the freshly cemented specimens (336.3 ±188 N). After 5000 cycles of compressive loads, the mean retention force for cement specimens decreased (209.4 ±83 N), while the clinical sleeves (476 ±50 N) remained unchanged.CONCLUSIONS:According to the results of this study, after 6 months of clinical use, the engaging surfaces of the shape-memory alloy sleeve did not show signs of wear, and the retention force was unchanged.

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM:While glass ionomer cements have many unique properties and advantages, they still lack favorable mechanical properties. EQUIA Forte Fil is a newly developed glass ionomer cement (GIC) with improved mechanical strength. However, research and data on the physical properties of EQUIA Forte Fil are lacking. PURPOSE:The purpose of this in vitro study was to evaluate and compare the compressive, diametral tensile, and flexural strengths of EQUIA Forte Fil with Fuji IX GP and ChemFil Rock, restorative GICs commonly used in dentistry. Moreover, fluoride-releasing properties and surface hardness of the GICs were also assessed. MATERIAL AND METHODS:Ten disk-shaped specimens of each GIC (EQUIA Forte Fil, Fuji IX GP, and ChemFil Rock) were fabricated for mechanical and surface hardness tests by using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) molds. The specimens were tested after 24 hours and 7 days of immersion in distilled water at 37 °C. By using a mechanical testing machine, the compressive, diametral tensile, and flexural strengths of each GIC were measured. Fluoride-releasing properties were also evaluated (10 specimens per group). A microhardness tester was used to measure the surface hardness. The mean data were analyzed by using 1- and 2-way ANOVA (α=.05). RESULTS:EQUIA Forte Fil glass ionomer cements exhibited significantly greater (P<.05) flexural strength and surface hardness than Fuji IX GIC specimens. However, no significant difference (P>.05) was observed between the compressive and diametral tensile strength of EQUIA Forte Fil and Fuji IX GIC specimens. ChemFil Rock exhibited higher flexural strength than EQUIA Forte Fil (P>.05) but significantly lower compressive strength and microhardness (P<.05). Tested GICs matured after 1 week of immersion in distilled water, demonstrating a significant improvement in their mechanical properties. All the examined glass ionomers exhibited comparable initial fluoride-releasing properties, whereas EQUIA Forte Fil exhibited significantly higher (P<.05) amounts of fluoride release from the bulk of the material after 4 weeks. CONCLUSIONS:EQUIA Forte Fil is a promising restorative material with superior flexural strength and surface hardness compared with its predecessor, Fuji IX GP, or other commercially available glass ionomers.

A digital method for capturing the acquired emergence profile from contoured implant interim restorations is described. Three separate digital scans were made by using an intraoral scanner and aligned by using a design software program capable of merging and alignment. The Boolean Difference function was then performed by using a free software program to obtain the emergence profile. This technique may be less time-consuming than analog methods and may be more accurate than existing digital methods.

Statement of problem. Conventional approaches to adhesive bonding are not applicable to zirconia restorations. Recently, an etching solution, Zeta Etching Solution (ZES), has been introduced for etching the surface of zirconia. The effects of this etching solution on the bond strength and mechanical properties of zirconia are unknown. Purpose. The purpose of this in vitro study was to examine the effects of ZES on the bond strength and surface hardness of zirconia. Material and methods. Two different types of partially stabilized tetragonal polycrystalline zirconia (TZP), Prettau zirconia (group P) and anterior Prettau (group AP), were evaluated with and without ZES etching. Each group was bonded to a zirconia substrate by using an adhesive resin cement. After 24 hours of storage in distilled water, the bond strength of the zirconia was analyzed. Vickers hardness was determined by using a microhardness tester. Scanning electron microscopy was used to analyze the surface microstructure and determine the mode of failure for each specimen. Results were analyzed and compared using 1-way ANOVA and Student t tests (alpha=.05). Results. Scanning electron microscopy analysis showed that etching the surface of zirconia with ZES etching solution for 60 minutes changed the morphological characteristics and microstructure of zirconia, making the surface more irregular. The changes were more pronounced for AP specimens. Etching with ZES significantly increased the shear bond strength of zirconia (P<.05) in AP specimens. The bond strength of Prettau (P group) specimens after ZES etching did not increase significantly (P>.05). An adhesive failure mode was observed for P zirconia specimens, whereas zirconia specimens exhibited a cohesive mode of failure. No significant decrease (P>.05) was observed in the mean Vickers hardness numbers. Conclusions. Within the limitations of this in vitro study, it was concluded that etching in ZES for 30 minutes significantly enhanced the shear bond strength of highly translucent anterior Prettau (AP) zirconia restorations. Moreover, etching with ZES did not adversely affect the surface hardness of the zirconia specimens tested.

Background Atlantis abutments are CAD CAM patient-specific products for cement and screw-retained implant restorations. Each abutment is individually designed from the final tooth shape taking the peri-implant mucosal shape and phenotype, fixation method, and abutment biomaterial into consideration and can be combined with implants from the major implant manufacturers. The connection interfaces and abutment screws are engineered and tested for each implant interface geometry for best fit and stability. Aim/Hypothesis The objective of this study was to provide more scientific data on the clinical performance of titanium and gold-shaded titanium Atlantis Abutments when connected to implants from four implant manufacturers- Astra Tech Implant System, BIOMET 3i, Straumann, and Nobel Biocare. Material and Methods This is a retrospective, multi-center study involving six clinics in the US, (UNC, Iowa, UCLA, Columbia, NOVA and UAB). Patients who had received Atlantis Abutments (titanium or gold-shaded titanium) between 2010 and 2013, connected to implants from four different manufacturers, replacing one or more teeth, in any position in the mouth, as part of a permanent prosthetic restoration were recruited. Retrospective data collected from medical records as well as data collected from one prospective study visit including a clinical examination were collected, including- original implant and abutment still in place, adverse device events related to the implant abutment complex, evaluation of papillae, presence of plaque, probing pocket depth and bleeding on probing. Intraoral radiographs were used to measure marginal bone levels. Satisfaction questionnaire was distributed. Descriptive statistics were run for each variable in the study. Results 142 patients with 259 restored implants were included in the study. Implant abutment survival rate was 98.8% with a follow-up time of up to 8 years. Evaluation of the papilla height revealed 8% of the cases had no papilla present, 21% had less than half the height, 25% had at least half the height, 44% filled up the entire space, and 1% was hyperplastic. Plaque was present at 38% of the restorations, the mean probing depth for all surfaces was 3.11 mm, and 51% of the cases had at least one surface presented with BoP at the visit. Patient satisfaction questionnaire revealed that 69% of the patients had very good and, 23% had good chewing ability. Patients were very satisfied (72%) or satisfied (26%) with the esthetic results of their implant supported restorations. 68% of the patients were very satisfied, and 26% were satisfied with the overall treatment, and only 1% of the patients were very dissatisfied, 3% dissatisfied with treatment, 2% were neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. Conclusions and Clinical Implications The outstanding results show that Atlantis CAD CAM Abutments offer great support for fixed implant retained prostheses and are a reliable material for prosthetic restorations regardless of the implant manufacturer.

Of the available regenerative treatment options, craniofacial tissue regeneration using mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) shows promise. The ability of stem cells to produce multiple specialized cell types along with their extensive distribution in many adult tissues have made them an attractive target for applications in tissue engineering. MSCs reside in a wide spectrum of postnatal tissue types and have been successfully isolated from orofacial tissues. These dental- or orofacial-derived MSCs possess self-renewal and multilineage differentiation capacities. The craniofacial system is composed of complex hard and soft tissues derived from sophisticated processes starting with embryonic development. Because of the complexity of the craniofacial tissues, the application of stem cells presents challenges in terms of the size, shape, and form of the engineered structures, the specialized final developed cells, and the modulation of timely blood supply while limiting inflammatory and immunological responses. The cell delivery vehicle has an important role in the in vivo performance of stem cells and could dictate the success of the regenerative therapy. Among the available hydrogel biomaterials for cell encapsulation, alginate-based hydrogels have shown promising results in biomedical applications. Alginate scaffolds encapsulating MSCs can provide a suitable microenvironment for cell viability and differentiation for tissue regeneration applications. This review aims to summarize current applications of dental-derived stem cell therapy and highlight the use of alginate-based hydrogels for applications in craniofacial tissue engineering.