Understanding the human dimensions of human–wildlife conflict is crucial for achieving sustainable coexistence. However, conservation efforts for Taiwan’s last wild feline, the leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), have largely overlooked this perspective. This study applies the Conservation Conflict Transformation framework and its two constituent models: the Levels of Conflict Model and the Conflict Intervention Model to examine conflicts surrounding this endangered species. Our surveys with 418 farmers confirm dispute-level conflicts, with more than half reporting damage attributed to leopard cats. Despite generally neutral to positive attitudes toward the species, the results reveal underlying social tensions between farmers and other stakeholders involved in the management and conservation of leopard cats, particularly farmers’ dissatisfaction with their public portrayal. These findings demonstrate that effective conflict resolution requires addressing not only material disputes but also deeper social and relational dimensions. By linking conflict diagnosis with intervention pathways, this study illustrates how the framework can support the transformation of conflict toward coexistence. While essential for the long-term survival of leopard cats in Taiwan, our findings hold broader relevance for managing human–wildlife conflict in other contexts.

The Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) is among the world’s most threatened mammals. However, its cryptic, nocturnal, and fossorial habits hinder long-term ecological research. A lack of sex-specific spatial data currently limits the accurate parameterization of population density models. Understanding movement patterns and home range dynamics is therefore critical to overcoming methodological constraints and advancing evidence-based in-situ conservation. Here, we conducted a seven-year radiotelemetry study (2009–2015) in Taiwan’s Coastal Mountain Range. Using optimized tracking protocols, we tracked 29 radio-tagged adults in their natal habitat, obtaining extensive home range datasets. For 14 of these individuals, we analyzed seasonal variations in home range size and spatial overlap between sexes, with tracking durations up to 1,921 days. We futher examined seasonal variations in inactivity and signal shielding to reflects the extent of inactivity in burrows. Female home range estimates stabilized after 270–420 days, whereas males required 500–1,200 days, indicating that short-term monitoring markedly underestimates spatial requirements. Adult males exhibited significantly larger mean annual home ranges (MCP 100%: 116.9 ± 37.7 ha) than females (25.3 ± 11.7 ha). The observed spatial configuration, with male territories overlapping multiple female ranges, is consistent with a polygynous mating system. Seasonal variation was also evident: home ranges expanded during the wet season, coinciding with increased prey activity, while the dry season was marked by greater transmitter signal shielding (>30–40%), likely reflecting intensified burrow use for energy conservation and breeding. This study provides the first high-resolution baseline of Chinese pangolin spatial ecology, delivering essential parameters for refining population density estimates and informing conservation and reintroduction strategies. We advise caution when interpreting camera-trap-derived population parameters, as seasonal detection probabilities must be integrated into analyses. Additionally, tracking efficiency can be improved by aligning transmitter duty cycles with seasonal activity and avoiding animal releases during dry or winter periods to minimize signal shielding.

With the globalization of human activities, invasions of non-native organisms into new habitats have increased. The masked palm civet (Paguma larvata) is an invasive alien species in Japan, with previous mitochondrial DNA studies indicating that Taiwan might be the source of the Japanese population. In addition, nuclear microsatellite data have shown a large genetic difference between the populations on Honshu and Shikoku islands. To further clarify the migration and expansion histories of this species, we analyzed the population genetics of P. larvata in Japan and Taiwan by using genome-wide SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) data generated through ddRAD-seq. We found the previously unstudied population in western Honshu to be genetically closely related to that in central Honshu, with low genetic diversity due to a recent range expansion. The populations in Japan were genetically differentiated among Shikoku, western and central Honshu, and eastern Honshu. By admixture analysis, the Honshu and Shikoku populations showed affinity with one or two of them. Overall, the genetic diversity in Japan was lower than that in Taiwan, suggesting a founder effect during introduction from Taiwan. Within Japan, relatively higher variation in the eastern Honshu (especially Gunma Prefecture) populations indicated multiple introductions and/or different genetic lineages from those in Taiwan. Our study provides insights into the introduction history and migration routes of this alien species that can enhance management plans.

Jarman’s hypothesis maintains that larger-bodied grazers that feed mainly on grass-like graminoids tend to form large groups, and smaller-bodied browsers that feed mainly on non-graminoids tend to be solitary. Whether this hypothesis held true for forest-dwelling ungulates in subtropical zones had not been investigated. We evaluate Jarman’s hypothesis by investigating grouping behaviour of three sympatric subtropical forest-dwelling ungulates—sambar (a larger-bodied grazer), and Reeves’ muntjac and Formosan serow (smaller-bodied browsers)—in Yushan National Park, central Taiwan. We found no differences in group size among these species, with each being mainly solitary throughout the year. This suggest that grazer-like diets and large body size do not promote increased group size in this forest habitat. Subtropical cloud forests provide many opportunities for animals to conceal themselves, rendering antipredator benefits associated with being in groups of limited value. Female groups—the presumed foundation of gregarious societies—occurred only in sambar, suggesting that a grazer-like diet and large body size provide the basis for group formation. Highly productive and uniformly distributed graminoids—the staple food of sambar, and thought to mitigate intraspecific food competition—possibly explain why female group formation occurred only in sambars. These findings suggest that the direct selective pressure for increased group size in open habitat where places for animals to conceal themselves are few is predation, rather than the need to mitigate intraspecific competition for food resources.

Dietary composition provides valuable insights into a species' behavior, foraging ecology, and habitat use, which are crucial for both in situ and ex situ conservation efforts. In recent decades, Chinese pangolin populations have been declining due to poaching and habitat loss, making it crucial to understand their ecological needs for effective conservation. This study examined the dietary composition of obligate myrmecophagous Chinese pangolins by actively collecting feces from radio-tagged individuals in Taiwan, minimizing the biases frequently associated with passive dietary assessment methods. Fecal filtering techniques and recovery rates were employed to determine the quantity of prey items consumed by the pangolins. From 132 fecal samples, a total of 4 termite species (2 families, 4 genera) and 58 ant species (5 families, 25 genera) were identified. Eleven prey species, including members of Termitidae, Myrmicinae, and Formicinae, accounted for over 50 % of the frequency of occurrence, while 30 prey species (48.4 %) appeared in less than 10 % of the samples. Notably, termite and ant taxa together comprised nearly half of the total prey biomass. The fungus-growing termite Odontotermes formosanus contributed the highest prey biomass (40.8 %), followed by Pheidole nodus (10.55 %), Camponotus monju (8.69 %), Anoplolepis gracilipes (7.85 %), Nasutitermes parvonasutus (6.27 %), and Carebara yanoi (5.78 %). Furthermore, pangolins consumed fewer termites in summer compared to other seasons, with termite biomass peaking between April and June, coinciding with the termite dispersal flight season. In contrast, ant consumption was highest in summer, though seasonal fluctuations were less pronounced than those of termites. This peak in ant intake is likely due to the seasonal availability and foraging phenology of ants. Overall, the results suggest fungus-growing termites (Macrotermitinae) are a key food resource for Chinese pangolins in their geographical range. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the feeding ecology and life history of Chinese pangolins, future studies should focus on the pangolin-prey relationship, considering both seasonal effects and the nutritional value of prey colonies.

The Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla, a burrowing mammal, relies on burrows for foraging, shelter, and rearing its young. Pangolin burrows are typically classified as either resting (or resident) or feeding burrows. Resting burrows, in particular, are crucial for the pangolin’s survival, offering shelter, protection, and stability for the pangolin, especially during colder months and breeding seasons. Consequently, understanding the characteristics and usage patterns of resting burrows is critical for effective in-situ and ex-situ conservation efforts. This study assessed the density of resting burrows using sign surveys along line transects in a fragmented agricultural landscape. Additionally, radio telemetry was employed to specifically locate and characterize the resting burrows of seven Chinese pangolins (1 male and 6 females), as well as to analyze their usage patterns. The results revealed a burrow density of 110.8 per ha, with no significant variation across different environments. However, Chinese pangolins preferred resting burrows in areas with minimal human disturbance. Over tracking periods ranging from 52 to 327 days, female pangolins used between 12 and 32 resting burrows, while a single male pangolin used 48 resting burrows. Pangolins occupied individual burrows for up to 10 days during colder months and breeding seasons. Notably, resting burrows were frequently shared among individuals. Activity patterns showed that pangolins typically exited their burrows between 6:00 PM and 12:00 AM and entered their burrows between 10:00 PM and 4:00 AM. To conclude the findings:1) burrow count, while useful for identifying pangolin presence, is not a suitable quantitative indicator of population density. 2) Most resting burrows had compacted soil at the entrance, which could be mistaken for old or inactive burrows in other studies. 3) Resting burrows function as permanent structures that are reused across seasons instead of seasonal adaptations. 4) Preserving low-disturbance habitats will be critical for ensuring sufficient resting burrow sites, thereby supporting the long-term viability of pangolin populations. These results provide valuable insights into the usage patterns of resting burrows, thus enriching the understanding of pangolin behavior, ecological requirements and conservation strategies for this endangered species.

The Jarman-Bell principle is considered a general concept in ecology, stating that larger-bodied ungulates tend to eat lower-quality forage (i.e. less digestible graminoids), whereas smaller-bodied ungulates tend to eat higher-quality forage (i.e. highly digestible browse and herbaceous forbs). This contributes to dietary niche segregation among sympatric ungulates of different body sizes. However, it is unclear whether this concept applies to forest-dwelling ungulates in subtropical regions. Therefore, to determine the interspecific relationships regarding dietary niche among the sympatric sambars (largest body size), muntjacs (smallest body size), and Formosan serows (intermediate body size) in the subtropical montane cloud forest of Yushan National Park (Taiwan), we investigated their seasonal diet through microscopic analysis of feces. We found that the proportions of graminoids were higher in sambar feces than in muntjac and serow feces, supporting the Jarman-Bell principle. The proportions of dicot leaves were highest in serow feces, followed by muntjac and sambar feces, which deviated from the Jarman-Bell principle. This may have been caused by the tree-climbing behavior of serows, which allows them access to the abundant leaves of higher trees that sambar and muntjacs cannot access. To the best of our knowledge, our findings are the first to suggest that unique behavioral traits, such as tree climbing, cause unique dietary partitioning of ungulates in subtropical zones.

Context Elucidating how demography and contemporary landscape features regulate functional connectivity is crucial to implementing effective conservation strategies. We assessed the impacts of landscape features on the genetic variation of a locally endangered carnivore, the leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) in Taiwan. Objectives We aim to evaluate the association between genetic structure and landscape features. We further predicted the changes in genetic diversity and suitable habitats in the future. Methods We genotyped 184 leopard cats in western Taiwan using 12 nuclear microsatellites and a mitochondrial marker. We applied a landscape optimization procedure with two genetic distances to identify major genetic barriers and employed ecological niche modeling to predict the future distribution of the leopard cat. Results Bayesian demographic inferences revealed a dramatic population decline for all leopard cat populations in Taiwan. Genetic clustering and resistance surface modeling supported that the population connectivity was influenced by highways and high elevation. Niche modeling indicated low temperature was one of the primary factors limiting the occurrence of leopard cats that may inhibit their movement in high elevations. We predicted the suitable habitats of leopard cats would shrink northward and towards higher altitudes with rugged topography in response to global warming. Conclusions Our study provided genetic evidence that leopard cats in Taiwan had undergone a dramatic population decline that may be associated with anthropogenic impacts. We also inferred the anthropogenic linear feature compromised the connectivity and persistence of leopard cats in human-mediated landscapes. Our finding serves as a model for landscape genetic studies of island carnivores in subtropical regions.

Ungulates are terrestrial herbivores, basically adapted to running fast on the ground; tree-climbing behavior has been reported only in seven species, and five of them live in open habitats (Capra hircus, C. aegagrus, C. falconeri, C. cylindricornis, Oreotragus oreotragus). Tree-climbing behavior may also be evolved in ungulates inhabiting dense forests with abundant trees; however, this has rarely been reported in such species (Moschus leucogaster, M. moschiferus), probably due to the difficulty of observing in the wild. The numerous publicly available records in social networks hold potentially valuable information on the atypical behaviors of wild ungulates. Here, we explored the tree-climbing behavior of a forest-dwelling ungulate, the Formosan serow in Taiwan, a subtropical island, by extracting information from online social media platforms. We researched images and videos of Formosan serows through Facebook and YouTube and collected a total of 15 tree-climbing events. In these materials, Formosan serows climbed 10 tree species, including evergreen coniferous and broad-leaved trees, and a variety of parts, ranging in height from 0.6 to 4 m, and from branches of shrubs to trunks of tall trees. Tree-climbing behavior was recorded throughout Taiwan and from lowlands to subalpine zones, suggesting that tree climbing may be a common behavior in this species. Foraging while climbing trees was frequently observed (53.3%), suggesting that the purpose or benefit for climbing is to obtain additional food other than plants growing near the ground surface. In contrast to other tree-climbing ungulates, Formosan serows climbed trees not only in winter, but also in other seasons, when food is relatively abundant. This is the first scientific report of tree-climbing behavior in the Formosan serow that is typically a forest dweller.

Captive breeding and reintroduction are crucial to the conservation of endangered species and restoring their populations in the wild. Previous research has primarily focused on behavioral changes and adaptations in captive-bred animals prior to release; few studies have examined changes in reproductive traits and postnatal development in captivity. The Chinese pangolin, Manis pentadactyla, is Critically Endangered because its population has substantially declined in the wild due to poaching for sale in the traditional medicine and luxury food markets. Nevertheless, success in captive breeding in Taiwan may provide a pathway to the recovery of wild populations. This study combined records on captive individuals and field observations on wild Chinese pangolins over a period from 1997 to 2023 to determine (i) mating season, (ii) birth timing, (iii) body mass and total length of newborns, and (iv) postnatal growth patterns prior to weaning. The present study suggests that mating and birth timings for captive Chinese pangolins are not seasonal, as they are in the wild. Captive-born infants are significantly longer and heavier at birth than wild-born infants. Remarkably, captive-born pangolins also experience more rapid weight gain, nearly doubling in size compared with their wild counterparts by 25 weeks of age, even before they are weaned. This rapid growth is likely attributable to the high nutritional content of captive diets. This study suggests artificial feed formulas should be aligned more closely with wild pangolins’ diets to reduce the risk of obesity. Additionally, reproductive parameters and postnatal growth rates in Chinese pangolins cannot be based on observations of captive individuals alone; wild populations must also be considered. We conclude that Chinese pangolins exhibit physiological flexibility in reproduction and growth in response to environmental changes, providing insights for captive pangolin management and reintroduction programs.

Formosan macaque ( Macaca cyclopis ) is the only non-human primate in Taiwan Island. We performed de novo hybrid assembly for M. cyclopis using Illumina paired-end short reads, mate-pair reads and Nanopore long reads and obtained 5065 contigs with a N50 of 2.66 megabases. M. cyclopis contigs > = 10 kb were assigned to chromosomes using Indian rhesus macaque ( Macaca mulatta mulatta ) genome assembly Mmul_10 as reference, resulting in a draft of M. cyclopis genome of 2,846,042,475 bases, distributed in 21 chromosomes. The draft genome contains 23,462 transcriptional origins (genes), capable of expressing 716,231 exons in 59,484 transcripts. Genome-based phylogenetic study using the assembled M. cyclopis genome together with genomes of four other macaque species, human, orangutan and chimpanzee showed similar result as previously reported. However, the M. cyclopis species was found to diverge from Chinese M. mulatta lasiota about 1.8 million years ago. Fossil gene analysis detected the presence of gap and pol endogenous viral elements of simian retrovirus in all macaques tested, including M. fascicularis , M. m. mulatta and M. cyclopis . However, M. cyclopis showed ~ 2 times less in number and more uniform in chromosomal locations. The constrain in foreign genome disturbance, presumably due to geographical isolation, should be able to simplify genomics-related investigations, making M. cyclopis an ideal primate species for medical research.

The Sunda Clouded Leopard (Neofelis diardi) and Indochinese Clouded Leopard (N. nebulosa) are medium-sized felids native to tropical south and southeast Asia. In 2019, we began investigating the trade in Clouded Leopards and their parts in Asia. This was partly inspired by social media posts of an apparent pet Sunda Clouded Leopard. Investigations continued with respect to how and where Clouded Leopards are sold on social media and other digital platforms. We discovered several social media posts and local language news articles, that we believe are indicative of an illegal live trade in Sunda Clouded Leopards in Indonesia. While fewer instances of trade in Indochinese Clouded Leopards have been discovered thus far, patterns of trade in other large felids and small carnivores in the region, particularly as influenced by social media, may have implications for future live trade in Indochinese Clouded Leopards and increased trade in Sunda Clouded Leopards. We recommend that additional international attention and investment of resources, including local, national, and international law enforcement activities, focus their efforts on the growing trade in Clouded Leopards.

Pangolins in Nepal are found mostly in human-dominated landscapes where their numbers are declining due to illegal hunting and trade. Positive attitudes of local people are believed to be powerful drivers for the conservation of threatened species. We explored local attitudes using a semi-structured questionnaire survey of 1017 people from 105 villages in rural areas across Nepal to investigate the key factors influencing local attitudes towards pangolins and their conservation. Topography and education level were identified as strong predictors of attitude scores as was geographic variation associated with differences between provinces. Positive attitudes were observed in the majority of respondents from Madhesh Province and Koshi Province in eastern Nepal, in those with higher levels of education and those from the lowland Terai region. Respondents from Karnali Province, western Nepal and those living in the Mid-hill region, had significantly lower attitude scores. However, a significant number of respondents with negative attitudes towards pangolins in Karnali Province also reported higher levels of illegal hunting. Local stewardship can be promoted through awareness campaigns and alternative livelihood initiatives. Collaboration with local communities and stakeholders as well as their capacity enhancement should be a priority for the sustainable conservation of the species.

Wildlife is increasingly forced to live in close proximity to humans, resulting in human-wildlife conflict and anthropogenic mortality. Carnivores persisting in human-dominated landscapes respond to anthropogenic threats through fine-scaled spatial and temporal behavioral adjustments. Although crucial for conservation, quantitative information on these adjustments is scarce. Taiwan’s endangered leopard cat occurs in rural human-dominated landscapes with a high anthropogenic mortality risk. To survive, the nocturnal leopard cat needs suitable habitats for foraging and safe refuge for resting during daytime hours when human activity peaks. In this study, we tracked seven VHF-collared leopard cats. To determine habitat selection patterns, we compared land use at nighttime locations and daytime resting sites with random points and fine-scaled vegetation characteristics at daytime resting sites with random points. Leopard cats selected natural habitats for nighttime hunting and avoided manmade and, to a lesser extent, agricultural habitats or used them according to availability. For daytime resting, leopard cats selected natural habitats and, to a lesser extent semi-natural habitats, such as unused land and abandoned orchards. Resting sites were preferentially situated in natural habitats, with little visibility (<2 m), shrubs, reed and stones, away from areas with high levels of human activity. This suggests leopard cats use a proactive strategy to avoid human encounters, which was supported by the reduced temporal overlap with humans and domestic dogs on agricultural land. Resting sites were placed ca. 1 km apart, 12.9 ± 0.3 m (mean ± SE) from the patch’s edges, in patches with a size of 1.21 ± 0.04 ha (mean ± SE). Our results will assist in identifying and preserving suitable resting habitats to support leopard cat conservation.

The reproductive uniqueness of pangolins has been documented through diverse biological reports with discernible data discrepancies in gestation, copulation, and pregnancy. These mechanistic reproductive differences have yet to be endocrinologically quantified, which could assist in optimizing natural breeding in zoos to recover endangered species. The present research characterizes the Chinese pangolin's annual seasonal reproductive pattern by measuring immunoreactive estrogens and progestagens in 34 captive females and testosterone in 29 captive males. Our results showed that Chinese pangolins are seasonal breeders, with most births witnessed during Sept–Dec, overlapping with the field records. Females exhibited spontaneous ovulation and post-partum ovulation. Pregnant females exhibited a higher P4 level for ~ 9 months (Jan–Sept) and decreased before parturition (Oct–Dec). The circulating E2 is maintained at the baseline in pregnant females year-round. Contrastingly, in non-pregnant females, P4 is maintained at the baseline, apart from a slight elevation in January, and E2 demonstrates a sudden hike from November and remains elevated until February, suggesting the onset of ovulation. The serum testosterone concentration in males peaked during October, which is in sync with the female ovulation period. As a result that their major reproductive events, ovulation, mating, and parturition, all transpire in November-March. Evidence also supports that Chinese pangolins exhibit signs of postimplantation (pregnancy) ranging only from 5 to 6 months (May–Oct), preceded by possible facultative delay implantation triggered by lactation. The provided data not only fill in the knowledge gap for this critically endangered species but can also assist in making informed decisions, which can directly affect the successful breeding of this species in captivity.

Two species of pangolins occur in Nepal: the Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla and the Indian pangolin Manis crassicaudata . They are categorized as Critically Endangered and Endangered, respectively, on the IUCN Red List, and are protected under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973 in Nepal. Although both this national law and CITES prohibit pangolin hunting and trade, such trade still occurs. To better understand the patterns of pangolin hunting and trade in Nepal, we analysed data on pangolin seizures gathered from official records, grey literature and verified public media reports dating from 1 January 2010 to 31 December 2020. A total of 122 pangolin seizures were reported in 27 districts, mostly in the central mid-hills. Seizure cases included 23 live pangolins, 18 whole-body skins with scales and 1,046.7 kg of scales. We estimate a minimum of 1,500 individuals were hunted locally over the 11-year study period. Analysis of the trade network identified the capital city, Kathmandu, as the main pangolin trade hub, with scales being the most commonly seized item. The illegal trade occurred mostly in two regions: central and eastern Nepal, and areas bordering China. The pangolins were hunted mainly from core habitats within rural areas, then transported to the city for trade. These data support the future development of effective law enforcement and policy interventions for this region, to stop the illegal pangolin trade. Greater understanding of the patterns of the local pangolin trade and the identification of hotspot areas and peak hunting seasons will allow us to prioritize areas for future conservation interventions.

Morphometric relationships and condition factors are crucial to quickly understanding the fitness and well-being of animals. Total length (cm) and bodyweight (g) of 282 (male = 167 and female = 115) pangolins were accounted for in this study which was received and rehabilitated in Pingtung Rescued Center, Pingtung and Endemic Species Research Institute, Nantou, Taiwan. The allometric equation; W = aLb was used to estimate the length-weight relationships where R2 = 0.70, a = 0.61, and b = 1.98. The ratio of total body length and tail length was between 1.1 and 2.7. Pangolins exhibited negative allometric growth (b < 3) as their length increased. The average relative condition factor (KR) was 1.04, indicating a state of good health for rescued individuals. However, Fulton condition factor (KF) and KR fluctuated in different months but was significantly heavier during the wet seasons. This study recommended to release healthy animals with KF of 0.8 or higher back into the wild in order to increase their survival rate. The study, thus will be helpful to promote standardized guidelines for conducting physical measurements and understanding health status. Additionally, it will support the recovery of this threatened species by husbandry and diet management in ex-situ and in-situ conservation.

Rodents threaten agricultural industries and food security on a global scale. Rodent management practices routinely involve the use of chemical products, mainly anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs). An understanding of farmer rodent control behaviors is crucial in order to implement management changes to more environmentally friendly practices. In this study, we surveyed farmers in an agricultural area of northwestern Taiwan on their knowledge, attitudes, and control practices for rodent pests. From our survey sample of 126 farmers, rodents were perceived to be the most problematic for vegetable crops, followed by rice, and then fruit. Farmers in the oldest age group and those that perceived rodents to cause extensive damage to their crops were found to have the most negative attitudes toward the pests. One-third of the farmers in our survey stated they currently use rodenticides, with crop type, perceived problems caused by rodents, and attitudes toward rodents found to be important explanatory variables. Our results indicate that the use of rodenticides is reactive; farmers are more likely to apply the chemical products if they perceive rodents to cause damage. Additionally, cost–benefit assessments are likely important in governing rodent control behaviors; farmers may be more inclined to use control products that are subsidized by the government, which include ARs, when they observe damage to their crops inflicted by rodents. We also describe how ecologically based rodent management (EBRM) practices could be feasible and sustainable alternatives to rodenticide use.

This data set forms the basis of a scientific open access publication in Wildlife Biology: van der Meer E, Dullemont H, Chen WL, Chang AM, Chen CC, Pei KJC, Lai YC (2022) Live capture and handling of Taiwanese leopard cats (Prionailurus bengalensis): an evaluation of trap designs and capture protocol. Wildlife Biology. It contains data on trap characteristics, leopard cat visits, domestic dog visits and bycatch for various trap designs used for the live trapping of leopard cats in Taiwan. It also includes data on leopard cat movement in the first six days after trapping and handling, based on triangulation of the signal from the VHF collars of the study animals.

Abstract The extant biological reports on pangolins have mainly been established from rescued gravid individuals or a handful of observations done in captivity, thus, generating data discrepancies. The present research characterizes the Taiwanese pangolin's annual seasonal reproductive pattern by measuring immunoreactive estrogens and progestagens in 34 captive females and testosterone in 29 captive males. Our results showed that Taiwanese pangolins are seasonal breeders, with most births (10/13) witnessed during Dec-Jan as field records. Females exhibited spontaneous ovulation and post-partum ovulation. Pregnant females exhibited a higher P4 level for ~ nine months (Jan-Sept) and decreased before parturition (Oct-Dec). The circulating E2 is maintained at the baseline in pregnant females year-round. Contrastingly, in non-pregnant females, P4 is maintained at the baseline apart from slight elevation in January, and E2 demonstrates a sudden hike from November and remains elevated until February, suggesting the onset of ovulation. The serum testosterone concentration in males peaked during October, which is in sync with the female ovulation period. As a result that their major reproductive events, ovulation, mating, and parturition, all transpire from November-March. Evidence also supported that Taiwanese pangolin exhibit the signs of postimplantation (pregnancy) ranging only from 5–6 months (May-October) preceded by facultative delay implantation triggered by lactation. The provided data not only filled in the knowledge gap for this critically endangered species but also can assist in making informed decisions, which can directly affect the successful breeding of this species in captivity.