Despite intensive research over the past three decades, a generally accepted standard method to measure black carbon (BC) or elemental carbon (EC) still does not exist. Data on BC and EC concentrations are method specific and can differ widely. This work was motivated by the lack of any prior study that established the variability between these two measures of carbonaceous particulate matter. Measurements of BC and EC were performed at different locations across Asia and the South Pacific in both urban and suburban locations. Filter samples were collected during the winter of 2007 to the winter of 2010 and analyzed for both BC and EC. EC was measured using the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE_A) protocol. Black carbon was measured by the EELS reflectometer (Diffusion Systems, Ltd). Bangladesh had the highest correlation coefficient of 0.93. Bangkok, Thailand on the other hand had the lowest correlation coefficient of 0.34. A review of previously reported source apportionment of BC concentrations in these locations showed that New Zealand had the highest percentage (82%) of BC from biomass while Mongolia had the lowest percentage of 3.1%. The fraction of BC emissions from diesel vehicles was found predominant in Mumbai, India with values as high as 80%. Mongolia had the lowest emission of BC from diesel vehicle (5.4%) with coal- and biomass-combustion being the dominant sources.

The capital city of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, suffers from high levels of pollution due to excessive airborne particulate matter (APM). A lack of systematic data for the region has inspired investigation into the type, origin and seasonal variations of this pollution, the effects of meteorological conditions and even the time-dependence of anthropogenic sources. This work reports source apportionment results from a large data set of 184 samples each of fine (PM2.5) and coarse (PM2.5-10) fraction atmospheric PM collected over a three-year period (2014–2016) in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) was applied using the concentrations of 16 elements measured by an energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer along with the black carbon content measured by a reflectometer as input data. The PMF results revealed that whereas mixed sources dominate the coarse fraction, soil and traffic sources are the principle contributors to the fine fraction. The source profiles and the seasonal variations of their contributions indicate that fly ash emanating from coal combustion mixes with traffic emissions and resuspended soil, resulting in variable chemical source profiles. Four sources were identified for both fractions, namely, soil, coal combustion, traffic and oil combustion, which respectively contributed 35%, 16%, 41% and 8% to the coarse fraction and 31%, 27%, 31% and 11% to the fine fraction. Additionally, the probable source contributions from long-range transport events were assessed via concentration-weighted trajectory analysis.

In 2019, a domestic raw coal ban (RCB) was introduced in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.Coal-briquettes have since been promoted in Ger district households, however implications for carbon monoxide (CO) exposure remains uncertain. We obtained 48-hour indoor CO concentrations in 23 Ger district households and compared these to 10 raw-coal households. Information on household characteristics, fuel use behaviour and stove venting practices was collected by survey. Mean 48-hour CO concentrations coal-briquette households was 6.1 ppm (range 1.5-35.8 ppm) with no signfiicant differences by household, stove or venting factors. Peak time-weighted average CO concentrations exceeded WHO Indoor Air Quality guidelines in 9 (39%) households; with all surpassing the 8-hour guideline (>8.6 ppm); 3(13%) the 24-hour guideline (>6 ppm) and 2(9%) the 1-hour guideline (>30 ppm). Median CO levels were significantly lower in coal-briquette compared to raw coal households (p = 0.049). Indoor CO reduction was associated with RCB implementation although hazardous levels persistin this setting.

Air pollution is one of the most pressing modern-day issues in cities around the world. However, most cities have adopted air quality measurement devices that only measure the past pollution levels without paying attention to the influencing factors. To obtain preliminary pollution information with regard to environmental factors, we developed a variational autoencoder and feedforward neural network-based embedded generative model to examine the relationship between air quality and the effects of environmental factors. In the model, actual SO2, NO2, PM2.5, PM10, and CO measurements from 2016 to 2020 were used, which were assembled from 15 differently located ground monitoring stations in Ulaanbaatar city. A wide range of weather and fuel measurements were used as the data for the influencing factors, and were collected over the same period as the air pollution data were recorded. The prediction results concerned all measurement stations, and the results were visualized as a spatial–temporal distribution of pollution and the performance of individual stations. A cross-validated R2 was used to estimate the entire pollution distribution through the regions as SO2: 0.81, PM2.5: 0.76, PM10: 0.89, and CO: 0.83. Pearson’s chi-squared tests were used for assessing each measurement station, and the contingency tables represent a high correlation between the actual and model results. The model can be applied to perform specific analysis of the interdependencies between pollution and environmental factors, and the performance of the model improves with long-range data.

The Mongolian capital of Ulaanbaatarexperiences some of the world’s worst air pollution during the winter months, most of it being caused by small coal- and wood-fired stoves which are used for heating and cooking purposes in peri-urban parts of the city. A recent pilot study in Songinokhairkhan District of Ulaanbaatar City evaluated the feasibility of electrostatic dust precipitators (ESP) for reducing particulate matter (PM) emissions from small stoves. This paper focuses on the pollution reduction potentials that would result from a large-scale implementation of ESPs. Using a locally developed low- cost ESP system (which is currently in the process of further improvement), reduction rates ranging between 10 to 50% of the PM emissions (depending on the fuel and combustion conditions) could be achieved. Fitting all or at least a major fraction of the small stoves with such ESPs could reduce PM emissions by an order of several thousand tons per heating season for the whole city. The avoided particle emissions would simultaneously prevent atmospheric pollution by various trace metals and metalloids including As, Cd, Pb and Zn, which are known to be major soil and water pollutants locally, and several other toxic substances. However, this also means that safe disposal strategies must be developed for the fly ash precipitated during ESP operation.

Environmental pollution of the air, water, and soil comprise an increasingly urgent challenge to global health, well-being, and productivity. The impact of environmental pollution arguably has its greatest impact across the lifespan on children, women of childbearing age, and pregnant women and their unborn children, not only because of their vulnerability during development, but also because of their subsequent longevity. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, is a highly instructive, perhaps extreme, example of what happens with recent, rapid urbanization. It is the coldest capital city on Earth, where average ambient temperatures routinely fall below -40°C/F between November and February. During the cold winter period, more than 200,000 "Gers" (traditional felt-lined dwellings) in the "Ger district" burn over 600,000 tons of coal for domestic heating (>3 tons each). Thus, outdoor ambient particulate levels frequently exceed 100 times the WHO-recommended safety level for sustained periods of time, and drive the majority of personal particulate matter exposure. Indoor levels of exposure are somewhat lower in this setting because Gers are equipped with chimneys. Major adverse health impacts that we have documented in the Ger districts include the following: respiratory diseases among those between 1 and 59 years of age and cardiac diseases in those over 60; alarming increases in lung cancer rates in females are also beginning to emerge; and fertility and subsequent successful completion of term pregnancy falls by up to half during the winter pollution season, while early fetal death rises by fourfold. However, the World Bank has intervened with a Ger stove replacement project that has progressively reduced winter pollution by about 30% over the past 5 years, and this has been accompanied by an increase in mean term birth weight of up to 100g. Each incremental decrement in air pollution clearly has beneficial effects on pregnancy, which are likely to have the greatest positive health and macroeconomic impact across the lifespan. However, innovative policies and solutions are clearly needed to eliminate coal heating in Gers and thus further reduce the markedly negative health impact of this practice.

Cent Asian J Med Sci. 2015 November;1(1):67-74 , DOI: 10.24079/cajms.2015.01.011 In this study, personal monitoring of black carbon in the PM2,5 size fraction was conducted with children. In the article, several times measurements were referred to incorrectly as being personal PM2,5 exposure, which is not accurate since black carbon within the PM2,5 size fraction was measured, not total PM2,5. The stationary monitoring was referred to correctly since black carbon in the PM25 size fraction was measured with the AethLabs aethalometer in addition to the PM2,5 size fraction with the TSI DustTrak, but the children's exposure was only measured with the AethLabs aethalometer. As seen in Table 1 from the stationary monitoring, black carbon comprises only 5-31% of the total PM2,5 concentration. Therefore, if the children's exposure in Table 2, Figure 3, and in the text is interpreted as total PM2,5 exposure, their exposure to PM2,5 is underestimated. In all instances referring to the children's exposure, the measurement should be referred to as the black carbon in the PM2,5 size fractio.

Air pollution is attributable to 7 million deaths per year, or one out of every eight deaths globally. In particular, high concentrations of particulate matter (PM), a major air pollutant, have significant impacts on health and regional climate in urban centers. Many of the most polluted places, largely in developing countries, go severely understudied. Additionally, high particulate matter levels can have an impact on the microphysical properties of clouds, impacting precipitation and regional climate. Semi-arid regions can be especially affected by small changes in precipitation. Here we characterize the physical and chemical properties of PM in one of the most PM-polluted cities in the world: Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, a semi-arid region in central Asia. Twice monthly aerosol samples were collected over 10 months from a central location and analyzed for composition and ice nucleation activity. Almost all particles collected were inhalable, consisting primarily of mineral dust, soot, and sulfate-organic. In winter, all classes of PM increase in concentration, with increased sulfur concentrations, and the particles are less active towards heterogeneous ice nucleation. In addition, concurrent monthly average PM10, SO2, NOx, and O3 levels and meteorological data at a nearby location are reported and made publicly available. These measurements provide an unprecedented seasonal characterization of the size, shape, chemical structure, and ice nucleating activity of PM data from Ulaanbaatar. This 10-month field study, exploring a variety of aerosol properties in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, is one of very few such studies conducted in the region or in such a highly polluted environment. The results of this study may inform work done in other similarly situated and polluted cities in Asia and elsewhere.

Objectives: To measure personal exposure to air pollution in children, in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Methods: Since coal burning for domestic heating causes severe air pollution in Ulaanbaatar, we measured personal PM2.5 exposure for children aged 5-12 years during the winter 2013-2014. Results: Peak levels of black carbon PM2.5 exposure >200 µg/m3 between November and March varied significantly with time of day, with the highest peak 18:00-02:00, a nadir 02:00-07:00, followed by a second peak 07:00 -12:00, with another afternoon nadir 12:00-18:00. Children living in Ger districts in a Ger or wooden house, had the highest levels of PM2.5, >500 µg/m3 , with duration of personal peak exposure in Gers 8-fold longer than in wooden houses. Conclusion: Peak exposures in Gers were related to going outside, fire lighting and cooking, whereas in wooden houses peak exposures were related to going outside or opening the door. The least exposure for children was in an apartment or school with the windows shut. Significant levels of personal exposure also occurred during the commute to school, outside playtime, shopping trips and car rides. Opening the window of steam heated apartments for “fresh air cooling” as well as indoor smoking also produced important levels of personal exposure.

The Health Impact of Particulate Matter Characteristic after the Intervention in Ulaanbaatar, MongoliaAbstract Number:2013 Delgerzul Lodoisamba*, Lodoysamba Sereeter, and Christa Hasenkopf Delgerzul Lodoisamba* Health Sciences University of Mongolia, Mongolia, E-mail Address: [email protected].com , Lodoysamba Sereeter National University of Mongolia , Mongolia, E-mail Address: [email protected] , and Christa Hasenkopf United States, E-mail Address: [email protected] AbstractBackground: Many interventions have been taken to reduce outdoor air pollution specially the particulate matter in Ulaanbaatar which is one of the most polluted cities in the world especially during wintertime. Aims: In this study, we compared the effects of short-term exposure to PM2.5 and its' chemical composition on daily morbidity before and after the intervention in Ulaanbaatar.Methods: Mass concentration and chemical composition (33 elements) of PM2.5 was measured in the 9th Khoroo Sukhbaatar district in Ulaanbaatar were measured whole year, before (2008-2009) and after (2012-2013) the intervention. We collected data on hospital admissions for respiratory (ICD-10 J00-J99) and cardiovascular (I10-I99) disease from all hospitals in the district during the same period. We used a case-crossover design to estimate the risk of hospital admission in relation to the concentration and chemical composition of ambient PM2.5 on the same day.Results: The average annual concentrations of PM2.5 in the 9th Khoroo Sukhbaatar district were 375.09 ± 722.59 µg/m3 (mean ± SD) in 2008-2009, 139.63 ± 129.7 µg/m3 (mean ± SD), in 2012-2013. The total number of hospital admissions for respiratory disease and cardiovascular disease was decreased by 15%. Within one year, the risk of hospital admission for respiratory disease and cardiovascular disease increased by 1.8% (95% CI 0.7-3.0%; p <0.01), in 2008-2009 and 1.3% (95% CI 0.94-9.4%; p <0.01), in 2012-2013 respectively, for a 100 µg/m3 increase in daily mean PM2.5 concentration.Conclusions: Our study shows that interventions taken in Ulaanbaatar have reduced ambient levels of PM, especially during the cold period. The short-term effect of particulate matter was associated with increases in hospital admission in both before and after the intervention.

BACKGROUND:Air pollution is a major health challenge worldwide and has previously been strongly associated with adverse reproductive health. This study aimed to examine the association between spontaneous abortion and seasonal variation of air pollutants in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. METHODS:Monthly average O3, SO2, NO2, CO, PM10 and PM2.5 levels were measured at Mongolian Government Air Quality Monitoring stations. The medical records of 1219 women admitted to the hospital due to spontaneous abortion between 2009-2011 were examined retrospectively. Fetal deaths per calendar month from January-December, 2011 were counted and correlated with mean monthly levels of various air pollutants by means of regression analysis. RESULTS:Regression of ambient pollutants against fetal death as a dose-response toxicity curve revealed very strong dose-response correlations for SO2 r > 0.9 (p < 0.001) while similarly strongly significant correlation coefficients were found for NO2 (r > 0.8), CO (r > 0.9), PM10 (r > 0.9) and PM2.5 (r > 0.8), (p < 0.001), indicating a strong correlation between air pollution and decreased fetal wellbeing. CONCLUSION:The present study identified alarmingly strong statistical correlations between ambient air pollutants and spontaneous abortion. Further studies need to be done to examine possible correlations between personal exposure to air pollutants and pregnancy loss.

The World Health Organization (WHO) listed the air pollution in Ulaanbaatar (Mongolia) among the top 5 cities with the worst air quality in the world. Air quality in the winter season reaches highs of 750 μg/m3 for daily average fine particulates (PM) due to increased coal combustion and lower mixing heights (<200 m), coupled with the city’s geography surrounded by mountains, which further restricts the vertical and horizontal dispersion of the pollutants. The annual average concentrations in 2010–2011 ranged 136 ± 114 μg/m3 (the WHO guideline for fine PM is 10 μg/m3). The single largest source of particulate pollution in Ulaanbaatar is coal and biomass combustion in households and heat-only boilers, followed by power plants. In this paper, we present sector-specific emissions for 2010 accounting for 62,000 tons of fine PM, 55,000 tons of sulfur dioxide, and 89,000 tons of nitrogen oxide emissions. The inventory is spatially disaggregated at 0.01° resolution on a GIS platform for use in a chemical transport model (ATMoS). The modeled concentrations for the urban area ranged 153 ± 70 μg/m3, when overlaid on gridded population, resulted in estimated 1,000–1,500 premature deaths per year due to outdoor air pollution. This study also highlights the linkages between indoor and outdoor air pollution. In these harsh temperate conditions, with 50 % of the emissions originating from Ger households, they are as big a health risk for indoor air quality as they are for outdoor air quality. Any intervention improving combustion efficiency or providing clean fuel for these stoves will have a combined benefit for indoor air quality, outdoor air quality, and climate policy. The analysis shows that aggressive pollution control measures are imperative to protect the population in Ulaanbaatar from excess exposure levels, and implementation of control measures like the introduction of heat efficient stoves, clean coal for heating boilers, and urban transport planning will result in significant health benefits, which surpass any costs of institutional, technical, and economic interventions.

Background: The combination of a cold, semi-arid climate and traditional household use of biomass fuels make Ulaanbaatar, capital of Mongolia, one of the most polluted cities in the world in terms ...

Due to increased energy demands from its rapidly growing economy and population, ambient air in Ulaanbaatar, the capital city of Mongolia contains some of the highest reported air particulate matter (APM) concentrations in the world. The purpose of this study is to identify major APM sources. Source apportionment is an elegant and effective way to establish baseline data for mitigation strategies that focus on reducing APM pollution. The Nuclear Research Centre at the National University of Mongolia has been conducting APM pollution studies in Ulaanbaatar since 2004. Results presented here are based on a sampling campaign from June 2008 to May 2009 at two sites in Ulaanbaatar. APM samples were collected on polycarbonate filter, in two size fractions, fine (PM2.5) and coarse (PM10-2.5) particulate matter. Ion beam analysis provided the elemental concentration values and receptor modeling was used to determine the sources contributing to the particulate matter pollution. The results show that the main sources of PM pollution are soil, motor vehicles, coal and wood combustion, with varying contributing amounts at each site. Source contributions to PM2.5 at a residential site were found to be: soil 47%, coal combustion 35%, motor vehicles/road dust 13% and biomass burning 4%. At the residential site it was found that the primary source contributors to PM10-2.5 were soil 71%, coal combustion 10%, and motor vehicles/road dust 19%.Source contributions to PM2.5 at a non-residential site were found to be: coal combustion 92%, motor vehicles/road dust 3%, soil 3% and biomass burning 2%. At the non-residential site it was found that the primary source contributors to PM10-2.5 were: soil 92%, motor vehicle/road dust 5% and coal combustion 3%.

are under-utilized. For instance, about 30% of households rarely or never use their bathroom fan. (3) More than 95% of households report that indoor air quality is ''very'' or ''somewhat'' acceptable, although about 1/3 of households also report dustiness, dry air, or stagnant or humid air. (4) Except households where people cook several hours per week, there is no evidence that households with significant indoor pollutant sources get more ventilation. (5) Except households containing asthmatics, there is no evidence that health issues motivate ventilation behavior. (6) Security and energy saving are the two main reasons people close windows or keep them closed.

This paper reports results from a stated preference survey designed to estimate the willingness to pay for mortality risk reductions in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. The survey includes both contemporaneous and latent risk reductions of a magnitude typically achievable through clean air policy. The study is one of a series of national studies designed to provide comparable estimates around the world. One goal of this series is to build a more solid bridge for benefits transfer between developed and developing countries. The survey was conducted in winter 2010. Estimates of willingness to pay passed external and internal scope tests. Study results imply a value of statistical life of approximately $500,000 (based on a purchasing power parity exchange rate) for a contemporaneous 5-in-10,000 annual risk reduction.

Ulaanbaatar, the capital city of Mongolia is subject to high air particulate matter pollution episodes during winter and during dust storm events in spring and autumn that have severe implications for the health of the exposed population. This paper presents the results of fine (PM2.5) and coarse (PM10–2.5) particulate matter monitoring in Ulaanbaatar from 2004 to 2008 and receptor modelling to determine the sources contributing to particulate matter pollution. Ion Beam Analysis was used to determine elemental concentrations in the two size fractions and black carbon was measured with a light reflectance device. Mass contributions to ambient particle concentrations from emission sources were estimated by positive matrix factorisation and air mass back–trajectory analysis was used to assess probable source locations. The results show that crustal matter sources are the primary contributors to the coarse particle fraction. Combustion sources (coal combustion, biomass burning, and motor vehicles) dominate the fine fraction of particulate matter in the Ulaanbaatar airshed, primarily from local emission sources but forest fires to the north can be a significant contributor to biomass burning concentrations at times. Analysis of seasonal differences showed that coal combustion processes were largely responsible for fine particle air pollution episodes during winter. Temporal trends show an increase in the coal combustion contributions over the monitoring period. We suggest that this is linked to the increase in the Ulaanbaatar population and a consequent increase in the use of coal for power generation and domestic heating purposes.