The isolation of aflatoxin producing species of Aspergillus from foodstuffs sold in calabar market was investigated. A total of eight food samples were bought from markets within Calabar. The samples were separately analysed for the presence of aflatoxin producing species of Aspergillus. The isolation of these species was carried out using dilution plating and direct plating methods respectively. Altogether thirteen species of moulds belonging to three genera were isolated from these samples. The most predominant genus-Aspergillus accounted for ten species, while Penicillium accounted for two species and Rhizopus accounted for one species. The aflatoxin producing species of Aspergillus, A. flavus was isolated from six food samples (peanuts, rice, groundnuts, wheat, maize and flour) while A. parasiticus was isolated from four food samples (peanuts, rice maize and groundnuts). However, there were variations in the degree of occurrence of each of the two species in each of these samples. Key Words: Aflatoxin, Aspergillus species, food stuffs.

Microbial succession and odour reduction during the controlled fermentation of cassava tubers for the production of ‘foofoo’, a staple food consumed popularly in Nigeria were investigated. A total of 8 microbial strains were isolated, these are: Bacillus subtilis, Lactobacillus plantarum, Corynebacterium manihoti, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Enterobacter aerogenes, Aspergillus niger, Geotrichum sp. and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Microbial succession following days of fermentation revealed that Bacillus subtilis and Lactobacillus plantarum predominate at all the days of fermentation Corynebacterium manihoti and Leuconostoc mesenteroides were isolated at day 1, Enterobacter aerogenes at day 2. Aspergillus niger predominates at day 1, 2 and 4 of fermentation. Saccharomyces cerevisiae was isolated at day 1 and Geotrichum sp. at day 3. Lactobacillus plantarum exhibited the highest acid producing ability, decreasing the pH of the fermentation from 6.1 to 3.66 with a corresponding increase in total titratable acidity (TTA) from 0.081% to 0.280% at day 4 of fermentation. The effected changes in pH and TTA by other isolates ranged respectively from 4.67 and 0.136% for Corynebacterium manihoti, 4.68 and 0.136% for Leuconostoc mesenteroide, 4.90 and 0.139% for Bacillus subtilis, 4.67 and 0.135% for Enterobacter aerogenes, 5.82 and 0.13% for Aspengillus niger, 5.80 and 0.137 for Geotrichum sp., 4.69 and 0.136% for Saccharomyces cerevisiae with in the period. All isolates were found to contribute in varying degree to odour reduction in fermented cassava; Bacillus Subtilis effected the highest odour reduction followed by Lactobacillus plantarum and Geotrichum sp. Key Words: Microbial Succession, odour reduction, fermentation, cassava tuber and foofoo.

Several herbs known to cure some ailments in Africa have not been scientifically evaluated for their phytochemical and antimicrobial properties, as a panacea for knowing the mechanisms of action of such herbs, in view of the current wave of microbial resistance to drugs. This study aims to screen the extracts of Ficus exasperata and Cida acuta for their effect on S. aureus (gram-positive bacterium) and E. coli (gram-negative bacterium). The crude extracts of F. exasperata and C. acuta were prepared using standard procedures, which involved soaking 20g of the powdered leaves in 80ml of 95% ethanol for 48hrs at room temperature, to allow for maximum extraction of active ingredients, followed by evaporation to retain the crude extract of each of the test plants. Parts of the extracts were screened phytochemically using standard methods, while the remaining parts of the extracts were used for the sensitivity test of the test organisms. The phytochemistry of the plants showed that F. exasperata contained high levels of tannins, flavonoids, and steroids and moderate levels of terpenes and anthraquinones. On the other hand, C. acuta contained high levels of alkaloids and flavonoids with moderate levels of saponins, tannins and cardiac glycosides, indicating that the two plants are of medicinal significance. It is inferred that the high content of alkaloids and moderate levels of saponins and tannins in C. acuta could have been responsible for the susceptibility of E. coli to it (zone of inhibition >21mm) as chloramphenicol (control). The levels of tannins, flavonoids and steroids with low levels of alkaloids make F. exasperata more effective against gram-positive S. aureus than gramnegative E. coli. S. aureus was very sensitive to F. exasperata (zone of inhibition >21) and resisted C. acuta (zone of inhibition<21mm). E. coli was observed to be 100% resistant to F. exasperata. It is conclude that C. acuta and F. exasperata are medicinal herbs of choice against E. coli diarrhoea and S. aureus infection, respectively

The potentials of biogas generation from mixtures of three substrates, water hyacinth, cassava peels and cow dung was evaluated using standard microbiological techniques. The results revealed that the combination of the three substrates without starter culture recorded zero milliliter biogas production in the first 5 days with optimum yield of 300mls, 600mls and 715mls for 1kg, 2kg and 3kg weight of the mixture respectively within 25 days while the digester with starter culture yielded optimum biogas production of 475mls, 650mls and 820mls respectively in 1kg, 2kg and 3kg weight within 25 days. The total viable bacterial and fungal counts from the substrate slurry of the WH + CP + CD was 7.55 x 10 8 cfug -1 and 2.35 x 10 4 cfug -1 before digestion respectively and 4.10 x 10 5 cfug -1 and 1.20 x10 2 cfug -1 after digestion respectively without starter culture. The digester with starter culture gave 7.68 x 10 8 cfug -1 and 3.35 x 10 4 cfug -1 for bacteria and fungi respectively before digestion and 5.25 x 105cfug-1 and 2.20 x 102cfug-1 respectively for bacteria and fungi after digestion. Optimum and total biogas produced from the treatments KEY WORDS : BIOGAS, WATER HYACINTH, CASSAVA PEELS and COW DUNG

Background: Many plants in Africa are medicinal including domesticated edible vegetables. The time-dependent antibacterial efficacy of two popular Nigerian vegetables (Vernonia amygdalina and Gongronema latifolium) on clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli was evaluated. Phytochemical compositions were also evaluated using direct chemical estimation and thin layer chromatography respectively. Methods : Leaves were extracted with aqueous and alcoholic solvents at 2 hours and 72 hours at various concentrations and tested against bacteria using the agar well diffusion method. Minimum inhibitory/bactericidal concentrations were also determined. Results: Ethanol extracts of fresh leaves were more active than methanol extracts when were decocted in 98% alcoholic concentrations. The highest zone size obtained was 18mm at 125mg/ml concentration of ethanol extract against S. aureus. Activity was most prominent at 2 hours of decoction. Both plants had inhibition values of 2500 μg/ml each on E. coli as MIC and MBC while G. latifolium showed 5000 μg/ml each as MIC and MBC and V. amygdalina showed 625μg/ml each as MIC and MBC values respectively on S. aureus. The plants were shown to have ample quantities of saponins, flavonoids and alkaloids. Conclusions: This result has shown the relative potency of edible vegetables against bacteria. The level of phytochemical compounds bitter vegetable plants contain points to the usefulness of G. latifolium and Vernonia amydalina as credible supplements for antibiotics when used fresh or used as fresh solvent decoctions.

As part of the on-going search for potent and resistance-free antimicrobial medicinal plants, the antimicrobial and synergistic effects of the plants, Allium sativum (E1) and Gongronema latifolium (E2) on Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were investigated. The sensitivities of E. coli and S. aureus to E1 and E2 and the minimum inhibitory concentrations of the plant extracts, individually and in combination with themselves, and with ciprofloxacin (CPX) and ampicillin (AMP), were tested using standard procedures. E1 and E2 individually showed appreciable antimicrobial effect (zones of inhibition > 16mm). The combination of E1 and E2 against the test organisms was not effective due to antagonism between E1 and E2. E1 or E2 when combined with CPX, completely suppressed the effect of CPX against E. coli, and rather produced additive effect on S. aureus similar to the combination of E2 and AMP against S. aureus, although CPX alone was more effective than either E1 or E2, unlike AMP. Synergism was observed in the combination of E1 and AMP against S. aureus. It is concluded that synergism associated with the combination of medicinal plants is doubtful. However, the synergistic or additive effect between garlic and conventional drugs to some strains of bacteria which are resistant to some conventional drugs, gives hope of fighting drug resistance.

Uptake of heavy metals, silver and cadmium by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (a Gram negative bacterium) and Micrococcus luteus (a Gram positive bacterium) was investigated in Cadmium and Silver stock solution using ion selective electrodes. Silver and cadmium uptake by the two organisms was described by Langmuir isotherms. Binding at one site type is indicated. It was observed that both organisms showed rapid uptake of metal mostly in the first minute. Uptake was complete by ten minutes. Micrococcus luteus concentrated more metal than Pseudomonas aeruginosa. M. luteus took up 200% more silver and 100% more cadmium than P. aeruginosa. We conclude that the two organisms, particularly M. Luteus have very high bioremediation potentials in heavy metals polluted environment. Keywords: Heavy metals, Pseudomonas, Langmuir isotherms, Silver, Cadmium

Self medication in rural Africa has reached a crisis state, as people take anything, and even potentially toxic substances as remedies. Thus, this study investigated the self medication profile of the rural people of Cross River and Akwa Ibom States of Southeastern Nigeria. Five hundred and fifty two out of seven hundred and thirty six persons which were randomly selected served with structured questionnaires, were interviewed. The study revealed that 99.4% relied on self medication, while 0.6% consulted physicians. A wide range of substances such as herbs, antibiotics, ash, kerosene, petrol, etc, are used as remedies, and no specific drugs are used for specific ailments, depicting a confusing state of folk medicine in rural Africa. Herbs (10.8%) and antibiotics (9.1%) can be used for the treatment of any of the identified sixteen ailments in the communities. The intervention of government to reduce poverty and provide adequate healthcare and education is recommended.

Warm water extracts of the leaves of Garcinia kola and Vernonia amygdalina suspended in honey traditionally employed for the treatment of post circumcision wounds, fresh wounds and chronic skin ulcers was prepared and evaluated for its phytochemical properties and antimicrobial activities. The phytochemical analysis of the preparation revealed the presence of polyphenoi, reducing sugars, tannins, glycoside, alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids and anthraquinones. Neat (100%) concentration of preparation inhibited the growth of Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Candida albicans. At 50% concentration, the growth of P. aeruginosa while S. aureus and K. pneumoniae were inhibited while at 25% concentration only P. aeruginosa was inhibited. The result suggests that the preparation exhibited significant in vitro antimicrobial activity against common wound isolates and may be employed for the routine treatment of wounds and sepsis as an alternative to antibiotics chemotherapy.

A survey of 592 individuals, in four local government areas in the South East of Nigeria was carried out to determine the use of petroleum distillate products in treating common ailments. It was found that there was a high number of respondents (69%) using one or more of these toxic products in treating common ailments. Products commonly used topically and ingested include brake fluid (hydraulic fluid), kerosene, petrol, crude oil and engine oil. It is believed that the lack of affordable healthcare coupled with high illiteracy encourages the use of these products. It is suggested that the relevant Government agencies such as the Ministry of Health and the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) be made aware of these findings in order to educate the populace on the dangers of these products.

As a contribution to the on-going search for alternative, available and affordable treatment of common infections in Sub-saharan Africa, the efficacy of local herbs, Senna alata(Linn) and Borreria ocymoides (Burm), in comparison with conventional drugs, griseofulvin and clotrimazole in the treatment of dermatophytosis among primary school children, was examined in the three districts of Cross River State, South-South Nigeria. Out of 840 pupils screened, 68 (8.1%) were infected, with incidence ranging from 11 (1.3%) in the southern to 33 (3.9%) in the northern districts, indicating a widespread of the infection. Specimens taken from the infected pupils and analyzed for the causative agents, showed that Trichophyton tonsurans 29 (20.4%) followed by Microsporum soudanense 24 (16.9%) was most frequent. The greater sensitivity of the isolated dermatophytes to the local plants than the chemotherapeutic drugs (control) offers some hope of treatment and control. The antifungal activity of the plants was associated with their very high levels of chemical components, saponins, anthraquinones and flavonoids. We recommend further studies on the chemical properties and safety of the plants before total dependence on them for treatment.

The prevalence of Vibrio species in shellfish and their seasonal variability in the Great Kwa River estuary (GKWE) were examined. Results revealed a trimodal peak in Vibrio counts, coinciding with meteorological changes and the hot periods of the year. The estuary was constantly faecally polluted, coupled with high rates of infection of shellfish by V. parahaemolyticus 42 (13.6%), V. cholerae non-01 29 (9.4%) and V. alginolyticus 22 (7.1%), thus posing a health risk. The observed seasonal variability and prevalence of Vibrio species infection are of epidemiological significance, and provide a guide for effective control of associated cholera epidemics.

Information on the potency of many African medical plants against microorganisms is scanty, and in the current wave of antimicrobial resistance against chemotherapeutic drugs, there is need to search for plants that could be resistance-free and affordable. The objective of this study was to investigate the antimicrobial effects of the extracts of Lasianthera africana (E1) and Heinsia crinata (E2) in combination with chloramphenicol, on Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Staphlococcus aureus and Candida albicans. For this purpose, the dilution sensitivity and disc diffusion techniques were respectively applied in determining minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the plant extracts, and the sensitivities of the organisms to the plant extracts and their combinations with chloramphenicol. L. africana and H. crinata showed very high antimicrobial activity against all the test organisms. In combination, the effect of E1 on E. coli and S. typhi was completely antagonized by that of E2, whereas additive effect on S. aureus and C. albicans was observed, indicating that the combination of E1 and E2 might be effective against gram positive pathogenic organisms. The combination of either plant extract with chloramphenicol produced synergistic effect on only C. albicans. The smaller MIC of E2 indicated greater effectivity than E1. It is concluded that the additive effect produced by the combination of the two plant extracts, and the synergic effect from the combination of any of the extracts with chloramphenicol, offer alternative therapy to gram positive bacterial infections and candidiasis respectively.

Dirty Nigerian currency notes in circulation were sampled from market women and men in four markets in Cross River and Imo States of Nigeria, and analysed microbiologically for possible presence of pathogens, using standard methods. All the notes were observed to harbour both gram positive and gram-negative pathogenic bacteria and fungi. Out of 112 samples screened bacteriologically, Streptococcus species showed the highest frequency of 36(28.6%) followed by Staphylococcus aureus with a frequency of 31(24.6%). Others were E. coli 24(19.0%), Bacillus cereus 12(9.5%), Klebsiella species 13(10.8%) and Pseudomonas 10(8.0%). N20 and N100 denominations with contamination rates of 28(22.2%) and 24(19.1%) respectively were most contaminated, implying that they were mostly in circulation. Among the pathogenic fungi isolated from 112 samples, Aspergillus niger 8(19.1%) and Absidia species 9(17.0%) exhibited the highest frequency. Mucor species, Penicillium and Epidemophyton species each showed a frequency of 8(15.1%). Rhizopus species and Geotrichum candida had frequencies of 7(13.2%) and 5(9.4%) respectively. The antimicrobial sensitivity and resistance of the bacterial isolates were about 50:50% which portends a serious health problem. It is concluded that the dirty Nigerian currency in circulation is a potent means of transmitting infections, and therefore constitutes a great health hazard in Nigeria, unless there is legislation on the proper handling of the currency. . Global Journal of Mathematical Sciences Vol. 6 (1) 2007: pp. 35-40

An internal household survey of socioeconomic indicators in the Cross River State forest communities showed that basic infrastructural facilities such as clean water supply, adequate waste disposal system, good roads and electricity are grossly inadequate. There is a total absence of modern family planning practices in the communities, and population is projected to increase by 44.8% between 2000 and 2015 and 85.4% between 2000 and 2025. The study revealed that about 65% of the population of the rainforest communities consists of subsistence farmers and power chain operators, and besides the 19% of the Cross River State Tropical High Forestry (THF) already reported to have been lost to agriculture and plantation between 1972 and 1991, about 9% was lost between 1991 and 2000. An additional 25% of the THF will be lost by 2025, leaving only 470600 hectares (4706 km 2 ). With 84.1% of community members having an annual income less than $300, the survival potential of the Cross River State rainforest in the next fifty years is very low, unless an effective forest management programme is encouraged by government in partnership with all stakeholders.