Herbal teas are aromatic beverages commonly prepared by pouring hot water over the cured leaves or by boiling them. They have been used as traditional medicines for decades because of their health benefits. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potency of Lipton tea, Evergreen tea, Green tea, Mountain forest tea, Oolong tea, and Egret river tea in managing dry cough, vomiting, sore throat, pneumonia, diarrhea, and respiratory distress. The selected teas were tested against Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans using the agar well diffusion method. All plates were inoculated and incubated for 24 hours at 37oC. After incubation, each plate was observed for the formation of clear zones around the well. Our findings revealed that S. aureus, Strep. pyogenes, and E. coli were highly susceptible to green tea extracts. However, all the tea samples showed no activity on C. albicans. This result proffers that different varieties of common and exotic herbal teas have a great effect in suppressing related symptoms of covid-19 and therefore, may be used as adjuvants with other anti-viral and antibiotic medications when treating infection.

An apparently simple method for generating human retinal organoids has been described by [1]. These investigators cultured cell aggregates in free-floating condition after initially scrapping adherent cells. Their results showed that newly elaborated morphologically well defined optic vesicles emerged within 7 days and were identifiable and could be harvested.

Malaria continues to be a critical health issue globally with more cases from the WHO African region and has remained endemic in Nigeria despite the possession of insecticide-treated nets. This present study aimed to explore the knowledge, attitude and practice regarding malaria and the use of ITNs as a malaria prevention strategy among rural dwellers in Mubi North Local Government Area, Adamawa State, Nigeria. A systematic questionnaire was used to get responses from a total of 304 households from January to March 2020 with only one adult interviewed per household. The respondents were the heads of the household. In their absence, a responsible adult above eighteen years, chosen by the family was interviewed. 99.3% (302) of the respondents agreed that malaria is caused as a result of a mosquito bite. The majority (90.8%) of them also agreed that ITN prevents mosquito bites, while 86.8% of them had ITNs. The study participants identified Fever (82.2%) and Headache (33.9%) as the most common evidence of malaria. Our study participants applied various preventive measures against mosquito bites such as the use of ITNs (86.5%), clearing breeding sites around their homes (28.3%), use of insecticidal sprays (18.8%), and wearing protective clothing’s (6.9%). This study has shown that respondents had good knowledge and attitude towards malaria and ITN, and also employed various measures to reduce the prevalence of malaria in the area.

Cellular therapy involves use of whole cell or cell cytoplasmic macro-molecular inclusions and their derivatives as resources for treatment and management of diseases and their complications in animals and humans. The use of these biological and bio-medical resources in modern times is increasingly gaining popularity within the community of health care givers.

The management, control and elimination of tuberculosis (TB) have been difficult with the advent of HIV and cases of multidrug resistant (MDR-TB) tuberculosis. The cases of multidrug resistance to rifampicin and isoniazid pose greater challenges on first line and second line drugs to eliminate TB. The study is aimed at establishing anti-tuberculosis activity of Tetrapleura tetraptera against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and MDR-TB and the phytochemical present. The leaves of Tetrapleura tetraptera were collected, weighed, dried and pulverized to powder. The pulverized leaves of Tetrapleura tetraptera were subjected to 70% methanol extraction and screened for phytochemical. The crude extract was further purified into fractions using silica gel and thin layer chromatography techniques. M. tuberculosis and MDR-TB were obtained from positive acid fast bacilli sputa of TB patients and confirmed using GeneXpert to differentiate genotypic drug susceptible M. tuberculosis and MDR-TB. The sputa were digested using sodium hydroxide-cysteine technique and cultured in Middlebrook 7H9. The crude extract and fractions were screened for anti-tuberculosis activity using tetrazolium microtitre plate assay. The results showed that Tetrapleura tetraptera crude had activities against M. tuberculosis at 7.4 ± 0 mg/ml and 27.5 ± 0 mg/ml for MDR-TB. One of the fractions inhibited the growth of M. tuberculosis at 0.24 ± 0 mg/ml and MDR-TB at 0.89 ± 0 mg/ml. The phytochemical screened includes tannins, alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, phenols and resins. T. tetraptra possesses anti-tuberculosis potential at low concentration on MDR-TB and can be a lead compound in drug development for the treatment of tuberculosis and multidrug resistant tuberculosis.

Background: Interactions between malaria and HIV infections due to the overlap of their geographic distribution pose major public health problems. Malaria and HIV co-infection among the poor and youth will affect the economy adversely. What are the effects of malaria infection in HIV individuals? Methods and materials: Nine hundred and seventy two patients who were referred to the Teaching Hospital from other hospitals for HIV screening and who gave their consent were involved in the study. Demographic data was obtained from each subject. Determine- Tm HIV kit was used to screen the patients while Chembio HIV 1/2 Stat-Pak assay kit was used for confirmatory tests. Giemsa stained, thick blood film was used for malaria parasite determination. Microhaematocrit and cyamethaemoglobin method were used for packed cell volume (PVC) and haemoglobin (Hb) determination respectively. Partec flow cytometry instrument was used for CD4 count. Results: Of the 972 patients, 400 (41.2%) were HIV positive while 572 (58.8%) were negative. A total malaria prevalence of 64%, mean intensity of 2.3 x 103 parasite/μL and that of 54.7% and 1.2 x 103/μL were recorded among HIV positive patients and negative patients respectively, though not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Among the HIV positive patients, the age group 18-28 years had the highest malaria prevalence (78.1%) and mean parasite load (2.6 x 103/μL). Low mean values, PVC (0.32), Hb (10.67) and CD4 count (343.24) were found among malaria positive/HIV positive patients while higher values, PVC (0.42), Hb (14.0) and CD4 count (754.42) were recorded among malaria positive/HIV negative patients and these differences were statistically significant (p < 0.05). Conclusion: The results from the haematological parameters of malaria positive HIV group showed that they were anaemic when compared with the malaria positive HIV negative group. Both malaria and HIV combined effect may have resulted in lowering the observed values. Given the sheer numbers of people living with HIV in Nigeria, an area where malaria transmission is common, there is concern for a significant public health threat. There is therefore greater need for malaria prevention and treatment among HIV infected people.

Adolescents in Africa have low HIV testing rates. Determining the HIV prevalence among this group is very important because adolescents living with HIV (ALHIV) have worse health outcome than other populations of people living with HIV. This study aimed at determining the prevalence of HIV among children of adolescents age (10 - 18 years) that come for HIV testing in virology laboratory of National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development, Abuja from January 2013 to December 2018. The result was expressed in percentage and disaggregated by sex. Out of 533 adolescents tested over 6 years, 252 (51.9%) females and 234 (48.1%) were males. A total of 69 (14.1%) of them were tested HIV positive which 42 (8.6%) were females and 27 (5.5%) were males. The result of this study indicates that there is epidemics of HIV among adolescents living in Federal Capital Territory Abuja. It is also evident that females are more vulnerable to HIV infection than the males. There is therefore need for urgent standard and comprehensive procedure for adolescents living with HIV transitioning from paediatric to adult care. This also calls for intensive enlightment on HIV education especially in our basic and post basic schools in Abuja.

The leaves of Salacia lehmbachii are used ethnomedically across Africa for the treatment of different diseases its antimicrobial activity as well as toxicological profile were evaluated. Antimicrobial activity against clinical strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococus aureus, Shigella species, Eschericha coli and Proteus mirabilis were compared with Gentamycin. Toxicological investigation was determined by administering 100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg of the ethanol leaf extract to male Wistar rats for 21 days with distilled water as control. Hematological and biochemical parameters as well as the vital organs were examined. The ethanol extract inhibited the growth of P. aeruginosa, S. typhi, S. aureus, Shigella species, E. coli and P. mirabilis to varying extents. The LD50 in rats was greater than 5000 mg/kg. Toxicological evaluation of the extract did not produce any significant effect on hematological and biochemical parameters and vital organs in rats. S. lehmbachii ethanol leaf extract did not demonstrate antimicrobial activity against selected microorganisms. Neither did it show any non-toxic effect on the parameters investigated in rats. Thus the extract can be considered safe when administered orally.

Antibacterial and antioxidant activities of methanolic leaf extract of Maerua crassifoliaKingsley Chimsorom Ckilaka, Godwin Christian Akuodor, Joseph Linus Akpan, Emeka Daniel Ogiji, Chukwuemeka Okorie Eze, Basil Chukwuma Ezeokpo

Abstract Background: The root of Icacina senegalensis is used for the treatment of malaria and related conditions in southeastern Nigeria. Methods: To establish its efficacy, the ethanolic root bark extract was investigated as antiplasmodial agent against Plasmodium berghei in mice. A 4-day suppressive test and the curative effect against established infection models of antiplasmodial studies were used. Results: The root bark extract of I. senegalensis (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) exhibited a significant (p<0.05) dose-dependent activity against the parasite based on suppressive and curative study. The antimalarial effect of I. senegalensis is compared with that of chloroquine (10 mg/kg), the standard drug. The ethanolic root bark extract also prolonged the survival time of infected mice. Conclusions: The results showed that the root bark extract possesses a potential antiplasmodial activity, which can be exploited for the possible development of new antimalarial agent.

Background: The rate of infection and the extent of damage of liver by parasites in cattle slaughtered in Onitsha and environ south east Nigera were investigated from October to December, 2014. The question then was which parasites were involved and was there any economic loss as a result of the parasitic infections. Methods & Materials: The study involved postmortem inspection on the slaughtered cattle. The livers were examined by making length wise incision on the ventral side, in such a way as to open up the gall bladder and the bile duct. Macroscopic changes in the liver were observed and their economic importance noted. Results: Out of a total of 2010 cattle examined 273(13.6%) were infected. Infection rates were 14.2, 13.6, and 13.2%, for the months of October, November and December respectively. Two types of flukes, Fasciola gigantica(12.0%) and Dicrocoelium hospes(1.1%) were identified along with hydatid cysts(0.5%). There were mixed infections of F. gigantica and D. hospes and also of F. gigantica and hydatid cysts. Infected liver showed thickening of the bile ducts and cirrhosis. In very heavy infections, the bile turned dark-green and more viscous than normal light green colour. The total weight of livers condemned by parasitic infection during the period was 675.7kg. Condemned liver due to F. gigantica was 524.5kg and that due to D. hospes was 133.7kg. A kilogram of liver was sold at $8, thus the total amount lost due to liver condemnation was $5,405.6. Conclusion: The parasites found contributed to a remarkable economic loss due to liver condemnation. The nomadic management practiced by cattle rearers in Nigeria could aid infection. Very poor meat inspection facilities and uncooperative attitude of butchers were observed. Prompt chemotherapy of live animals is necessary. Restricting and feeding of the treated animals with hays before they are slaughtered is recommended.

Background: Understanding the impact of malnutrition on pro and anti- inflammatory cytokine response in Plasmodium falciparum (p.f) infected children is very important for malaria control. This study specifically examined the balance between Interleukin 10, Tumour Necrosis Factor (TNF) and nutritional status of Plasmodium falciparum malaria infected children in South Eastern Nigeria to determine and evaluate the influence of malnutrition on immune response among p.f Infected children in Imo State Nigeria. Methods & Materials: Ethical considerations were duly observed. Children aged 1-72 months with ongoing fever or history of fever within the last 24 hours and with no sign suggestive of severe malaria were involved in this study. Blood films stained with giemsa and rapid diagnostic test (RDT) kit were used to diagnose malaria parasitemia. Their Nutritional status was determined using the international Reference Population defined by the U.S National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). IL-10 and TNF were assayed by ELISA. Statistical analysis was done using SPSS version 17. Results: A total of 1344 febrile chilren were involved in this study. From this group 26.3% and 31.5% were positive for malaria parasites microscopically and through the RDT kit respectively. The cytokines were associated significantly with malaria infection. IL-10/TNF ratio was significantly associated with parasite density and age (p<0.05). IL-10/TNF ratio was lower in children 1-24 months when compared with older children. There was however no significant association between the nutritional status of these chilren and malaria infection. Non significant proportions were stunted (22.9%), Under weight (9.4%) and wasted (5.2%). Stunting, underweight and wasting cut across the study population. These findings show no significant relationship between presence of malaria and stunting, Underweight and wasting,rather stunting and wasting were associated with age (p< 0.05). There was no relationship observed between the IL-10 and TNF cytokines levels and the nutrional status of the study population. Conclusion: Findings from this study suggest that there is no association between malnutrition and malaria as well as between the nutritional status of the study population and their cytokine level

Objective: To establish the efficacy of Pseudocedrala kotschyi (P. kotschyi) for the treatment of acute malaria attack used in Nigeria. ktethuds: The ethanolic leaf extract was investigated for antimalarial activity against Plasmodium berghei berghei (P. berghei berghei) in mice. Four day suppressive, curative effect against established infection and prophylactic models of antiplasmodial studies were used. Results: The leaf extract of P. kotschyi (100-400 mg/kg b.w. p.o.) exhibited significant dose dependent activity against the parasite in the suppressive and ctirative, and also had repository activity. The antimalmial effect of P. kotschyi is comparable to that of chloroquine. The ethanolic leaf extract also prolonged the survival time of the infected mice. The LD of the plant extract Ivas established to be >= 5 000 mWkg b.w. p.o. in mice. Conclusion: The results showed that the leaf extract has potential antiplasmodial activity, which can be exploited in malaria therapy.

Background: Schistosomiasis haematobium has long existed in Agulu lake area of Anambra state, Nigeria. Many researchers involved in studies here had employed use of health education to sensitize community members on the transmission and prevention of urinary schistosomiasis. The question then is whether these campaigns were effective. Methods & Materials: Four communities in the area known to be afflicted with the disease were selected. Five hundred respondents from 200 randomly selected households were involved. Individuals aged between 20 and 40 years formed the bulk of respondents. Questionnaire was the main instrument used during this study. It consisted of a series of open-ended and closed questions with discriminatory statements on popular beliefs and practices on S. haematobium in which agreement or disagreement was required Results: Of the 500 respondents 120(24.0%) were previously infected with the disease. Eight six percent of the respondents associated the disease with passing of blood in urine. Thus they refer to it as Oya obala (disease with blood). Inspite of the fact that the symptoms are well known, majority 280(56%) did not associate the disease with swimming or wading in infected water. Drinking of dirty water, eating water snails, curse from gods, stage through which every child must experience during development were some of the reasons given for suffering from S. haematobium. Conclusion: The findings revealed a reasonable ignorance on the mode of transmission and causation and even treatment of the disease. This will therefore retard efforts in the control of the disease. It is therefore advocated that intensified efforts using health education campaigns should be mounted. This is not only by researchers but should also involve health workers in the Local Government Area as well as community members. Provision of essential amenities like water boreholes should also be instituted.

To investigate the in vivo antiplasmodial effect of methanol leaf extract of Maerua crassifolia in mice infected with chloroquine sensitive Plasmodium berghei berghei. The extract was evaluated for activity against early infection, curative effect against established infection at dose levels of 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg p.o. Chloroquine at 10 mg/kg was used as standard drug. A dose dependent chemo-suppression of the parasites was obtained at different dose levels of the extract tested with a considerable mean survival time. The results support continued investigation of components of traditional medicines as potential new antimalarial agents.

A cross sectional study on the prevalence of parasitic ova and cyst in local food drinks (Soya milk, Kunu-zaki and Zobo) from four open markets in Enugu municipality, Southeast Nigeria was carried out in March, 2013. Fifty (50) bottles of each drink were bought from hawkers from our different markets, making a total of 600 bottles of drinks. Formol-ether concentration technique was employed to concentrate the parasites in the drinks. Of the 600 bottles of drinks whose content were examined 254(42%) were contaminated with ova and cysts of parasites. Parasites isolated were protozoan (Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Balantidium coli) and helminthes (Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura). E. histolytica was the highest (27.6%) type of parasite recorded. The highest number of parasites 166(30.1%) was recorded in food drinks collected from Ogbete main market while the lowest number of parasites 117(21.4%) was from Artisan market. Kunu-zaki drink recorded the highest number 192(31.9%) of parasites. However the number of parasites isolated from the different drinks and from different markets did not differ significantly (P>0.05). Study indicated that most of the locally made food drinks being hawked in Nigerian markets and environ are contaminated. Such drinks which are cheap with high nutritional values are beverages from beans, leaves and sorghum. Unhygienic environment and poor handling could be the sources of contamination. Health education involving the food drink producers as well as monitoring the activities and the environment of such producers by health workers is advocated.

The consequences of human infection with soil transmitted helminths (geohelminths) is of major health concern in developing countries. The transmission of such helminths are promoted by poor sanitation and personal hygiene such as insanitary handling of fruits and vegetables. A study to ascertain the geohelminths associated with Date palm fruits (Phoenix dactylifera) in Nigeria was conducted between February and July 2012. One thousand dry Date fruits each was purchased from three different locations ( eastern, western, northern) of Nigeria. A total of 3000 fruits was acquired. Each of the fruits was washed in 10ml normal saline. Forty to fifty fruits were washed daily. Formol-ether concentration technique was employed to concentrate the parasites in the water. Sediments observed were placed on a glass slide and observed microscopically using x10 and x40 objective lens, for possible parasite ova. Of the 3000 Date fruits examined, 1057(35.2%) were contaminated with ova of parasites. Of the contaminated 1057 fruits, 701(66.3%) haboured soil transmitted helminths while 356 (33.7%) contained other parasites. Identified geohelminths include ova of Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichura and Hookworm. Ascaris lumbricoides was the most prevalent parasite encountered and this was statitically significant (p<0.05). The number of fruits contaminated did not vary significantly (p>0.05) with the regions of Nigeria where the fruits were purchased. Date fruits which is highly patronized by travellers in Nigeria due to its sweetness, cheapness and high nutritional value are associated with geohelminths. The dry fruits are often eaten as soon as they are bought by travellers. The contamination could possibly be as a result of insanitary handling by both hawkers and buyers, who dip their hands into the fruit heaps in receptacles to select or taste the fruit before purchase. It is therefore advocated among other measures, that cleaning and washing of the fruits before consumption will aid in breaking the transmission cycle of these parasites.

The ulcer protective and antimicrobial effects of the ethanolic leaf extract of Verbena hastata, a popular herbal traditional medicine in southern Nigeria, were assessed using ethanol and indomethacine induced gastric ulcer in rats and against some disease causing microorganisms, respectively. The extract (100-400 mg/kg, p.o) exerted ulcer-protective activities against ethanol and indomethacineinduced ulceration in rats with maximum anti-ulcer effect observed at 400 mg/kg. In addition, V. hastata leaf extract (2.00 mg/ml) showed absence of antimicrobial effects against all the tested organisms. The oral LD50 values obtained were greater than 5000 mg/kg in mice. The results clearly indicate that V. hastata leaf extract possesses potent ulcer protective properties. It might be a useful contribution to highlight the mechanism of action of this plant as anti-ulcer agent.

Generally in a typical Nigerian setting, hospital visits for the treatment of malaria are usually cases of severe malaria where home remedies including over- the-counter drugs have failed. A descriptive epidemiological survey of malaria using hospital records was carried out in the three geopolitical zones (Local Government Areas) of Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria to give a picture of severe malaria in the city. Yearly regular survey for a period of six years (2000-2006) revealed an overall prevalence of 23.8% calculated over the years. In characterising the sample population, children aged between 0 and 5 years were observed to have recorded the highest incidence of malaria with 70.1% reported hospital cases, followed by pregnant mothers (35.0%) in descending order. Yearly prevalences of 17.4%, 14.9%, 23.9%, 23.4%, 33.0%, 22.2% and 32.9% respectively were recorded for the years 2000 to 2006. Chi- square analysis did not show any significant difference between the various prevalence rates (p=0.05). Gender-related rates of reported hospital cases showed a total prevalence of 22.5% and 25.4% for males and females respectively. Amongst the different Local Government Areas, Owerri West recorded the highest cases of hospital that treated malaria with (29.7%) followed by Owerri North (22.2%), with the least (21.6%) observed for Owerri Municipal. Malaria related cases in out-patient clinics and admission yielded prevalence of 3.1% and 8.9% respectively, for the total attendance. Overall malaria related mortality was observed as 1.2%. Most of the death (74 deaths) cases were observed within the age group of 0-14 years. On the clinical picture of malaria as recorded in the hospitals, Cerebral malaria, malaria in pregnancy, malaria in children, malaria relapse, and malaria with anaemia yielded total occurrence rates of 1.7%, 5.7%, 6.4%, 1.6%, and 4.4% respectively over the years. More cases of pregnant women with malaria was reported in the year 2002(45.0%) and there was a reduction trend from 2004, with the least reported rates (22.9%) in 2006. Similarly, more cases of malaria in children were recorded in the year 2002 (62.5%) while a reduction trend (29.1%) was observed in the year 2006. Chi- square analysis showed a significant difference among the various years (P=0.05). Keywords: malaria, morbidity, mortality, epidemiology, Owerri, hospital records Nigerian Journal of Parasitology , Vol. 32 [2] September 2011, pp.175-180

The phytochemical, antimicrobial and acute toxicity studies of the leaf and stem bark extracts of Syzygium cumini Linn. grown in Abuja, Nigeria was carried out. The phytochemical screening revealed the presence of carbohydrates, saponins, tannins, terpenes, volatile oil, sterols, resins balsam, phlobatanins and flavonoids in the leaves and stem bark of the species studied. Alkaloids and anthraquinones were absent in all the plant parts studied. 70% methanol extracts were used for antimicrobial and acute toxicity studies. The six test organisms used for antimicrobial studies were: Pseudomonas auriginosa, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, Bacillus subtilis and Salmonella typhii.The oil from the leaves showed activity on all the test organisms; the leaf extract showed activity on all test organisms except P. auriginosa while the stem bark extract showed no activity on any of the test organisms used. The oil had a saponification value of 363 and an acid value of 4.21. The lethal dose 50% (LD50) in mice was found to be >5000 mg/kg for the stem bark and at 3,873 mg/kg for the leaf extracts. Key words: Phytochemical, antimicrobial, acute toxicity, Syzygium cumini, Nigeria.