BACKGROUND:This study evaluates whether different fat formulations of cow's milk replacers (CMRs) for calves, made by replacing palm and coconut oils with Hermetia illucens oil, affect the apparent digestibility of the diet and fecal nutrient excretion at weaning. The effects of these formulations on calf intake, growth, and feed efficiency were also assessed. METHODS:Three commercial isoenergetic and isonitrogenous milk replacers, which differed only in the fat source, were tested over ten weeks: CMR C (80/20 palm/coconut oil), CMR T20 (80/20 palm/insect oil), and CMR T40 (60/40 palm/insect oil). Twenty-four calves were randomly assigned to three groups. Feces samples were collected individually at 65-69 days of age. RESULTS:The feed efficiency and the apparent digestion of nutrients did not differ significantly among the groups. However, the T20 group tended to have a lower dry matter intake than the C group and lower average body weight than the T40 group. CONCLUSIONS:Black soldier fly oil did not impair apparent nutrient digestibility or feed efficiency at weaning. However, the T20 formulation was associated with reduced solid feed intake and lower average body weight compared with those for T40, indicating that formulation and optimal inclusion level require further investigation.

The aim of this paper is to review the literature on the environmental impacts of pasture-based dairy cattle systems, focusing on the factors affecting the main impact categories. This paper also aimed at comparing data of the literature on environmental impacts in pasture-based vs. confined systems. The environmental impact of pasture-based dairy cattle systems appears to be highly influenced by several input factors. Life cycle assessments have shown significant variability in methodological approaches, which complicates the comparison of results across studies. The different variables affecting environmental impacts make it challenging to draw universally valid conclusions regarding the comparison of pasture-based and confined dairy systems on a global scale. In addition, the analysis of the variables highlights the considerable potential to reduce the environmental impact of milk production in both systems by adopting productivity-enhancing activities, low inputs and best management practices. Further aspects such as geographical factors, carbon sequestration, animal health and welfare, toxicological aspects due to the use of drugs and antimicrobials in animals and the maintenance of local animal breeds should be incorporated into LCAs for a full comprehensive understanding of the environmental impacts of dairy farms.

Animal welfare assessments have raised farmers’ awareness of their management practices, contributing to measurable improvements. However, these protocols often highlight critical points without providing clear guidance on the prioritization of corrective actions. To address this gap, qualified advisory support may play a pivotal role in translating assessments into effective and sustainable interventions. This study evaluates the impact of direct and continuous expert support on improving animal welfare in dairy farms. Data were collected from 21 dairy farms in southeastern Tuscany (Italy) using the Classyfarm (CReNBA) protocol. Each farm underwent two assessments at a three-month interval (T0 and T1), during which tailored support was provided to address specific criticalities. At T0, over 60% of the farms obtained only marginally acceptable welfare scores (mean 67.48 ± 4.75), with major deficiencies in farm management practices, particularly regarding hygiene and space management. At T1, all farms showed substantial improvements, with an average increase of 22% in total welfare scores (mean 82.05 ± 5.71) and a mean of nine improved parameters per farm. These findings underscore the effectiveness of structured, continuous consultancy in not only resolving critical issues but also in fostering more informed, proactive, and sustainable farm management. The direct involvement of experts appears to be a key driver in enhancing both animal welfare and operational outcomes in dairy farming.

Despite their inability to reproduce naturally, mules can host embryos and be surrogate dams. The aim of this investigation was to increase our knowledge of the qualitative composition of mule’s milk and its variations throughout the whole lactation period—namely, from 6 h after foaling to 180 days in milk (DIM). Milk was obtained from a mule dam that had foaled after receiving a mule embryo transfer. For each sample, the gross, mineral, and fatty acid composition was evaluated. The average quality of the mule milk was as follows: protein 1.97 g 100 mL−1, fat 0.90 g 100 mL−1, and ash 0.39 g 100 mL−1. Saturated fatty acids made up, on average, 50.00 g 100 g−1 of fat. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids made up half of the total fatty acid content (31.80 g 100 g−1 and 18.2 g 100 g−1 of fat, respectively). Linoleic acid and linolenic acid were the main polyunsaturated fatty acids in the milk. The milk composition changed throughout lactation. Dry matter, protein, fat, and ash decreased significantly from early lactation (6 h to 14 DIM). The n3 polyunsaturated fatty acids decreased at the end of lactation. The changes in milk composition throughout lactation are probably due to adaptations to the growth requirements of the foal.

The dairy sheep sector is an important sector in semiarid and arid areas. So far, the environmental impact of sheep milk production in these areas is scarcely known. This study aimed to assess the environmental impact of milk production on three farms that differ in the breed reared, namely Sarda (S), Lacaune (L) and Massese (M), in Tuscany (a Mediterranean region in central Italy). The Life Cycle Assessment methodology was applied to calculate the environmental performance of the farms, and the following impact categories were studied: climate change, freshwater, marine and terrestrial eutrophication, acidification, water use and land use. The L farm showed the lowest values for most impact categories and the M farm the highest. These results can be attributed to the greater productivity and efficiency of the L breed compared to the other two. Only for water use did the M farm cause a lower impact, underscoring the importance of applying characterization factors at the sub-watershed level.

The objective of the present work was to categorize the risks in the on-farm welfare of dairy sheep in semi-extensive systems in order to highlight if risks in welfare vary according to the farm size. To the best of our knowledge, this study constitutes one of the few categorizations of the risks in the welfare of dairy sheep reared semi-extensively. The survey was conducted on 12 semi-extensive dairy sheep farms in Tuscany (Central Italy), which were classified according to flock size: <500, from 500 to 1000, and >1000. The results showed an adequate rating for all the farms included in the study. The most critical issues concerned the ratio between the number of stockpersons and the number of animals within the farms, the small decubitus areas, the lack of udder cleaning procedures during milking operations, and, in terms of biosecurity, the lack of prevention, control, and eradication plans for the most important infectious ovine diseases. The results show that different items in the five areas evaluated, including the assessments of management of the flock, the number of daily inspections, and the hygiene of the water supplies are associated with the farm size. In large farms, the assessment of management of the flock was better, but the number of daily inspections and the hygiene of the water supplies were worse.

In sheep farming, gastrointestinal parasites can be responsible for significant reductions in animal health and production. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) fecal excretions are the main determining factors for N2O emissions from manure management and may pose other environmental problems, such as the acidification and eutrophication of natural habitats. By using the Mini-FLOTAC technique on fecal samples from sheep of different ages and physiological status from 19 dairy sheep farms in Tuscany (central Italy), gastrointestinal parasite infections were evaluated. The animal N and P fecal contents were also assessed, with the aim of evaluating possible relationships between the identified parasites and the environmental sustainability of the examined farms. The obtained results showed that Eimeria spp. (86.36%) and gastrointestinal strongyle (54.55%) infections are prevalent in the examined farms. Moreover, significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) P and Eimeria oocyst/gram-of-feces (OPG) values were found in fecal samples from animals < 1 year of age, and a significant (p ≤ 0.05) positive correlation resulted between N content and Eimeria OPG in fecal samples from animals in the first month of lactation. The findings from this study suggest for the first time that Eimeria spp. infections may have an impact on the environmental sustainability of sheep farming.

To date, no selective actions have been taken to improve milk traits in dairy donkeys, and the characteristics of the udder are not well defined in relation to the productive characteristics. This study aimed at increasing knowledge on Amiata dairy donkey body conformation, udder traits, and their relationship with milk yield and quality. Morphological, udder, and teat measurements and milk evaluations of 45 pluriparous jennies were carried out. The average wither height of the jennies was 126 cm and the chest girth was 148 cm; a large standard deviation of some body measurements was found. Forty-nine percent of the animals showed a moderately developed udder, while most of the jennies had symmetrical half-udders (96%) and the intermammary cleft was clearly visible in 53% of subjects. Correlation analysis indicated that bigger animals tend to have bigger udders, higher teat diameter, and greater distance between teat tips. A positive correlation between the teat length and the milk fat was found ( p < 0.01), which suggests that jennies with longer teats have a better ability to release milk fat. The results of this paper may be useful to define the characteristics of the milking device and address selective choices of the animals.

Milk contains several components that are important for human nutrition and health. To date, studies on organic and conventional milk have focused on their gross composition and fatty acid content, but little attention has been paid to the differences between other minor components, such as sterols and vitamins that may have functional actions. The aim of this study was to investigate the nutritional differences among 3 types of milk from a dairy plant: conventional, high-quality, and organic (in compliance with European regulations) milk, focusing on minor components such as sterols of animal and plant origin (phytosterols), tocopherols, and bioactive fatty acids. Cholesterol ranged from 271.37 mg/100 g of fat in conventional milk to 278.76 mg/100 g of fat in organic milk. Lanosterol was the main minor animal sterol in cow milk (ranging from 3.41 to 4.37 mg/100 g of fat), followed by desmosterol. The amount of total plant sterols in the analyzed milk ranged from 4.43 mg/100 g of fat in organic to 4.71 mg/100 g of fat in high-quality milk. Brassicasterol was the main sterol of plant origin which varied from 2.6 mg/100 g of fat in conventional and organic milk, to 2.93 mg/100 g of fat in high-quality milk. The second most present phytosterol was β-sitosterol, which ranged from 0.86 mg/100 g of fat in conventional to 0.97 mg/100 g of fat in high-quality, and organic milk. The results of the study showed no significant differences in gross and sterol composition between the 3 types of milk. However, the only significant difference found was in the fatty acid profile, with a higher n-3 content found in high-quality milk than in conventional and organic milk. These findings suggest that the investigated product categories and labels have minimal effect on the sterol and fatty acid profile of commercial cow milk.

The increased interest in donkeys because of their milk has led to changes in their farm management. Little is known about the effect of the farming systems on donkey health and welfare. Measuring hair cortisol concentrations is an emerging method to assess stress in animals. To the best of our knowledge, no cortisol assessment has been done on dairy donkeys; similarly, only a few studies have investigated donkey haematological values. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of the lactation phase, parity and season on blood parameters, milk yield and quality and hair cortisol in dairy donkeys. Individual samples of milk, blood and mane hair were taken from twenty jennies at 1, 6 and 10 months after parturition. Higher values of hair cortisol were found in the first sampling, suggesting temporary stress during the peri-parturition. The parity influenced the number of blood cells, which was lower in the pluriparous jennies. The season affected milk quality and mean corpuscular haemoglobin and mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration. The latters might represent the adaptation to the environmental conditions. This study contributes to a better understanding of the biochemical processes occurring in lactating jennies, and to their physiological and wellbeing status.

We evaluated the effects of adding unsold bread (i.e. a low-cost product) to the diet of fattening crossbreed pigs reared outdoors. A total of 27 Goland sows were allocated to three homogeneous groups and fed with different diets: A feed + 15% bread; B feed + 30% bread; C the control group (only feed). The pigs were weighed individually on arrival at the farm, at the start of the experiment, and at slaughter. Growth performance and carcass traits were evaluated. Two sections from the loin were taken from each animal and the following were analyzed: dry matter, crude protein, lipids, ash, fatty acids, pH, color, water-holding capacity, and lipid oxidation. Group B had higher gains and slaughter weights than group C, while group A showed intermediate values. The results show that a diet containing 30% bread facilitates weight gain of pigs, without affecting meat quality and nutritional value.

The period from late gestation to early lactation is characterized by changes in energy metabolism. The aim of the current study was to analyze the plasma total lipid fraction using gas chromatography (GC) analysis, in order to highlight metabolic changes from the pre-foaling to post-foaling periods. Eleven pluriparous dairy jennies (mean age of 11.88 ± 3.79 years) belonging to the Amiata donkey breed were enrolled. Blood sampling was performed at 15 days before foaling (T0), and 15 (T1), 30 (T2), 60 (T3), and 90 (T4) days after foaling, for biochemical and GC analysis. A total of 37 fatty acids were identified in plasma samples: 4 medium chain (MCFA), 24 long chain (LCFA), and 9 very-long chain (VLCFA) fatty acids. Among them, 20 fatty acids changed significantly, and two fatty acid showed a trend toward significance. Furthermore, the LCFA, saturated, unsaturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated ω-3 fatty acids changed significantly during the study period. The main alterations were between T0 and the other time points and appeared to be related to lipid metabolism, cellular structure and function, and inflammatory and immune responses. Our findings reveal greater energy requirements at the end of gestation compared to early lactation in donkeys.

In 2018, the Italian Ministry of Health introduced the ClassyFarm system in order to categorize the level of risk related to animal welfare. The ClassyFarm checklist for beef cattle is divided into four areas: Areas A “Farm management and personnel”; B “Structures and equipment”; C “Animal-based measures”; and “Emergency plan and alert system”. Answers contribute to the final Animal Welfare Score (AWS) and to the score of each area. The aim of this work was to assess the animal welfare level on 10 Tuscan beef cattle farms through the ClassyFarm checklist and to examine the relationship between the level of animal welfare on final weight (FW), carcass weight (CW), weight gain (WG), and average daily gain (ADG). The AWS was divided into four classes, and the scores for each area were divided into three classes. The analysis of variance was applied, and AWS class, sex, and breeding techniques (open and closed cycle) were included in the model. The AWS class and sex had a highly significant influence on all parameters, while the breeding technique did not significantly influence any parameter. Farms classified as excellent presented a higher FW (677.9 kg) than those classified as good and insufficient, and the same trend was found for the ADG. The classes obtained in Areas A and C had a highly significant influence on all the parameters investigated. The classes obtained in Area B significantly influenced FW and WG. In conclusion, the productive response of the animals seemed to benefit from the welfare conditions.

An in-depth molecular characterization of the main milk proteins, caseins (CNs) and whey proteins, from Amiata donkey combining top-down proteomic analysis (LC-MS) and cDNA sequencing revealed multiple proteoforms arising from complex splicing patterns, including cryptic splice site usage and exon skipping events. Post-translational modifications, in particular phosphorylation, increased the variety and complexity of proteoforms. αs2-CN perfectly exemplifies such a complexity. With 2 functional genes, CSN1S2 I and CSN1S2 II, made of 20 and 16 exons respectively, nearly 30 different molecules of this CN were detected in the milk of one Amiata donkey. A cryptic splice site usage, leading to a singular shift of the open reading frame and generating two αs2-CN I isoforms with different C-terminal sequences, was brought to light. Twenty different αs1-CN molecules with different phosphorylation levels ranging between 4 and 9P were identified in a single milk sample, most of them resulting from exon skipping events and cryptic splice site usage. Novel genetic polymorphisms were detected for CNs (β- and αs-CN) as well as for whey proteins (lysozyme C and β-LG I). The probable new β-LG I variant, with a significantly higher mass than known variants, appears to display an N-terminal extension possibly related to the signal peptide sequence. This represents the most comprehensive report to date detailing the complexity of donkey milk protein micro-heterogeneity, a prerequisite for discovering new elements to objectify the original properties of donkey’s milk.

The increase of knowledge on the composition of donkey milk has revealed marked similarities to human milk, which led to a growing number of investigations focused on testing the potential effects of donkey milk in vitro and in vivo. This paper examines the scientific evidence regarding the beneficial effects of donkey milk on human health. Most clinical studies report a tolerability of donkey milk in 82.6–98.5% of infants with cow milk protein allergies. The average protein content of donkey milk is about 18 g/L. Caseins, which are main allergenic components of milk, are less represented compared to cow milk (56% of the total protein in donkey vs. 80% in cow milk). Donkey milk is well accepted by children due to its high concentration of lactose (about 60 g/L). Immunomodulatory properties have been reported in one study in humans and in several animal models. Donkey milk also seems to modulate the intestinal microbiota, enhance antioxidant defense mechanisms and detoxifying enzymes activities, reduce hyperglycemia and normalize dyslipidemia. Donkey milk has lower calorie and fat content compared with other milks used in human nutrition (fat ranges from 0.20% to 1.7%) and a more favourable fatty acid profile, being low in saturated fatty acids (3.02 g/L) and high in alpha-linolenic acid (about 7.25 g/100 g of fat). Until now, the beneficial properties of donkey milk have been mostly related to whey proteins, among which β-lactoglobulin is the most represented (6.06 g/L), followed by α-lactalbumin (about 2 g/L) and lysozyme (1.07 g/L). So far, the health functionality of donkey milk has been tested almost exclusively on animal models. Furthermore, in vitro studies have described inhibitory action against bacteria, viruses, and fungi. From the literature review emerges the need for new randomized clinical trials on humans to provide stronger evidence of the potential beneficial health effects of donkey milk, which could lead to new applications as an adjuvant in the treatment of cardiometabolic diseases, malnutrition, and aging.

Research data on milk composition in cetaceans are scattered and fragmentary. This paper analyses the gross and mineral composition, the fatty acids profile and the fat globule size of bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) colostrum and milk at early lactation. The milk samplings were carried out on three lactating female of bottlenose dolphins at the 1st, 4-5 and 20- 42 day post partum. High percentages of dry matter (51.88%), fat (26.08%) and protein (13.83%) were found in the colostrum on the first day, while there was a tendency for these components to decrease in the milk. The average diameter the milk fat globule (7.07 μm) of this species was assessed for the first time. The milk was rich in unsaturated fatty acids, which were more than twice compared to the saturated fatty acids (unsaturated / saturated ratio = 2.6). The main fatty acids of dolphin milk were C16: 0, C16:1 n-7, C18: 1n-9, C20: 1 n-11 C20: 5 and C22:6n-3. Several FA tended to increase from colostrum to milk: C12: 0 doubled, C20: 1 n-7 and C22:1 n-11 tripled, C20: 1 n-9 quintupled in later milk samples. Differently, other FA tended to decrease: C18: 3 n-3 was approximately 4 times lower and C24: 0 and C24: 1 halved in milk compared to colostrum. In conclusion, this paper contributes to the knowledge of the nutritional value of milk from bottlenose dolphins maintained under human care. Higher content of nutritional components such as fat and protein was found in the first day colostrum compared to milk. Moreover, the findings of this study highlight abundance of unsaturated fatty acids and large sized milk fat globules in dolphin milk.

We investigated the main sterols, phytosterols, and the α- and γ-tocopherol content in donkey milk during the first 2 mo of lactation. Cholesterol was the main sterol in milk (mean ± standard deviation = 0.97 ± 0.443 g/100 g of fat). Lanosterol was the main minor sterol of animal origin, followed by desmosterol (0.003 ± 0.001 and 0.001 ± 0.001 g/100 g of fat, respectively). Of the phytosterols, β-sitosterol was the main sterol of vegetal origin in donkey milk (0.005 ± 0.002 g/100 g of fat), but lower levels of campesterol, brassicasterol, and stigmasterol were also recorded. Mean levels of α- and γ-tocopherol were 0.01 ± 0.007 and 0.003 ± 0.001 g/100 g of fat, respectively. We observed no significant changes in sterol or tocopherol content during the first 2 mo of lactation. The presence of lanosterol in donkey milk is of particular interest, because lanosterol is a potential drug and has important physiological effects. The presence of phytosterols, which are considered nutraceutical molecules, enhances the nutritional quality of donkey milk fat for consumers.

Donkeys may be susceptible to many pathological agents and may act as carriers of pathogens for other animal species and humans. This study evaluated the occurrence of potentially abortifacient apicomplexan protozoa DNA in blood and milk samples collected at different time periods during lactation (1, 6, and 10 months) from 33 healthy dairy jennies. A total of 73 blood and 73 milk samples were used for DNA extraction and analysis. Blood specimens from 11/33 (33%) jennies scored positive for Theileria equi, while milk samples scored negative. Blood and milk of 3/33 jennies yielded DNA of Toxoplasma gondii at 6 months (n. 1) and 10 months (n. 2) after parturition. Neospora caninum DNA was found in four milk and in five blood samples only at one month after parturition. This study is the first report about the presence of N. caninum DNA in milk of naturally infected jennies. Moreover, the excretion of N. caninum DNA in some of these jennies at 30 days from the parturition may suggest a possible occurrence of an endogenous cycle, while the presence of T. gondii DNA in the milk collected at 6 and 10 months after parturition may be suggestive of a discontinuous excretion.

This study was performed to assess the possible relationship between gastrointestinal strongylid infections and milk quantity and quality in donkeys used for milk production. Individual fecal and milk samples were collected from 16 multiparous lactating jennies of Amiatina breed at their 6th month of lactation. Statistical analysis was carried out between strongylid eggs per gram of faeces (EPG) and milk parameters. All animals were found to shed cyathostomin eggs, with EPG ranging from 150 to 1900. A higher milk production was observed in animals showing an EPG< 250, but this result was statistically not significant. Conversely, significant higher concentrations of milk urea and pH values, and lower concentrations of milk lactose, were observed in jennies with an EPG >1000. In conclusion, results from this study suggest that cyathostomin EPG values > 1000 may affect milk quality in dairy donkeys. Considering the novelty of these findings, more data needs to be collected to determine EPG thresholds to be used as a good marker for parasite infections influencing milk performance and quality in donkeys.