Humans have a long history of interacting with many types of intelligent machines. The level and sophistication of this interaction will only continue to grow in upcoming years, as intelligent technology continues to advance from automation to autonomous capabilities. In this chapter, we provide a historical context on research that has been conducted on humans interacting with machines. Principles of extraordinary human–robotic interaction (EHRI) are outlined to better understand effective and meaningful human–robot interaction. Finally, a discussion regarding the design and development of EHRI is presented. In this section, we present frameworks on how to both study and design EHRI.

Throughout the last 25 years there has been much research generated in the area of team cognition and distributed cognition, often independent from each other. However more recently these two areas have congealed in a way that makes them interrelated in myriad ways. Our book in 2001 (McNeese, Salas, & Endsley, 2001) among many others focused more distinctively on team cognition and in many ways was predicated on the study of teams, teamwork, and team performance that educed from a long history within the tradition of industrial/organizational psychology. This chapter provides an introduction to the Handbook of Distributed Team Cognition and provides a broader array of worldviews, histories, methodologies, measures, and applications than what was possible in the time of the first book. As part of this milieu is the important role that information, computation, and technology has played in defining multiple perspectives that have melded together distributed and team cognition, often in unique and innovative ways. This chapter hence provides an initial foray into the intermingling of what distributed means in the context of real-world environments where technology is highly active and present. The use of the autobiographic method is applied in the second part of the chapter to show how interdisciplinary science came into play to shape the first editor's worldview and research prowess within distributed team cognition.

As we begin looking at research within distributed team cognition, two thoughts are paramount: (1) to realize where the emergence distributed team cognition has come from (i.e., its historical significance and character and (2) to understand the reciprocation and influences among teamwork, cognition, and technology advancement as a basis for development of the field. In particular, we draw upon the incredible amount of research work done that indelibly the result of team simulations. Much of our own work emerged from the use of technology-enabled team simulations. This chapter reviews this work along with earlier foundations that set up and substantiate the study of teams both for collocated and distributed settings. This chapter presents Part I of team simulation research that focuses on understanding the long developmental path of work that has preceded current day theories, approaches, methods, and models to establish precedence and meaning.

Because substantial evidence supports team mental model similarity as a positive predictor of team performance, it is important that we help team members to develop a shared understanding of relevant team content. The current study extended the list of team mental model antecedents to include guided storytelling as an effective team intervention. In the first known empirical investigation of planned story usage in teams, we broke new methodological ground by pioneering a team intervention to proactively harness the benefits of narrative. Results revealed that the combination of presenting important information in story format and giving members time to reflect upon their strategies had a positive effect on team mental model similarity. In addition, the positive indirect effect of storytelling on team performance via team mental model similarity was stronger when guided team reflexivity was present than absent. These findings provide encouraging evidence for the continued examination of storytelling and reflexivity in teams.

This chapter discusses a situated cognition approach to problem solving, specifically borrowing concepts from ecological psychology to characterize problem solving as a perception-action process. Embedded within the social and technological context of piloting is the potential effect of a number of social psychological variables that can influence the construction of meaning. The chapter describes some examples of how people view of problem solving has been enhanced by borrowing concepts from ecological psychology. To understand more about the nature of situated problem solving, the nearly unlimited number of variables present in real-world problem solving must be controlled. Without some constraints on the problem space and activities possible in that environment, the inherently nonlinear multivariate nature of the context would be too complex for any existing psychometric models or research designs. Problem solving in nonemergency surgery begins weeks or months before the actual operation.

Task performance in uncertain and complex environments is dependent on human effectiveness in dynamic prioritisation and attention allocation. Non-routine critical events place a high demand on cognitive resources in operators, and they require operators to dynamically re-prioritise sub-tasks calling upon the need for predictive aids. Predictive aids provide real-time prediction of system variables, and they can potentially facilitate the detection of non-routine critical events and dynamic re-prioritisation during such events. However, prior research has reported mixed findings in their effectiveness, and no prior research has been done to test the effectiveness of predictive aids during non-routine critical events that require operators to dynamically prioritise tasks. Our experimental study with 77 participants examined the effect of a predictive aid on prioritisation of non-routine critical events in a cyber security event monitoring task. The predictive aid resulted in decrements in sustained attention as seen in delayed detection of some non-routine critical events and errors in prioritising non-routine critical events. This effect is a result of miscalibration in the importance of looking ahead with the predictive aid. This miscalibration was possibly associated with the look-ahead time, complexity of the predictive aid, and the lack of automation transparency (i.e. mechanism underlying prediction) together affecting its perceived usefulness. The experimental results have the following implications on the design and testing of predictive aids: (1) in a task requiring dynamic prioritisation and detection of non-routine critical events, predictive aids with insufficient look-ahead times can result in decrements in sustained attention; (2) predictive aids should be evaluated with subjective measures of perceived usefulness and workload; (3) predictive aids should be designed to have sufficient look-ahead times and transparency of underlying prediction mechanisms as these would affect visual scanning effort and perceived usefulness; and (4) experimental tests of their effectiveness should involve scenarios long enough that would take sustained attention effects and any potential learning effects into consideration.

Traditionally, cyber security has been positioned and developed primarily from a computational-technology perspective. Unfortunately, this has been rather short-sighted as it provided solutions that fail to consider many human-related, cognitive, and social factors that underlie solutions of significance. While there have been substantial contributions from technology development that help the overall problem, a more comprehensive and effective approach is now needed that: (a) explores cognitive sciences and collaborative systems as a substantial basis to reify discovery and prediction, (b) produces incisive research results that inform the design of cyber tools and interfaces for active use, and (c) establishes new understanding of cyber situation awareness wherein the distributed cognitive activities of users, dynamic and changing roles of the threat and the environment, collaborative teamwork, and the promise of innovative cognitive technologies are intertwined and realized. This chapter outlines the perspective of social-cyber systems, a transdisciplinary approach designed to enhance information protection, reduce errors and uncertainty, take advantage of teamwork, and facilitate insightful understanding of what awareness and collective induction means for cyber defense and security. The Living Laboratory Framework is used to describe our approach and to implement specific aspects of social-cyber system research that inform dimensions of awareness and induction. Cognitive explorations underlying cyber situation awareness are presented that involve entwining theoretical foundations, models and simulation, and problem formulation - with - ethnographies of practice, knowledge elicitation, design storyboarding and technology prototyping. Integration of these important elements provides the basis of expanding individual cognitive processing into collaborative teamwork and collective induction that afford the goals of obtaining readiness and resilience in social-cyber systems. Finally, the chapter looks towards what future requirements will be necessary to sustain efficacy in protecting valuable resources and services.

In this chapter, we provide an overview of Cyber Situational Awareness, an emerging research area in the broad field of cyber security, and discuss, at least at a high level, how to gain Cyber Situation Awareness. Our discussion focuses on answering the following questions: What is Cyber Situation Awareness? Why is research needed? What are the current research objectives and inspiring scientific principles? Why should one take a multidisciplinary approach? How could one take an end-to-end holistic approach? What are the future research directions?

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the independent and joint effects of objective and subjective measures of situation awareness on team performance. We propose that objective and subjective measures are types of metacognitive experiences, with objective measures capturing actual situation knowledge and subjective measures capturing perceived situation knowledge. These metacognitive experiences are theorized to work in tandem with task confidence to predict performance. Data were collected from 72 three-person teams working in a simulated task environment of emergency management teams. Objective situation awareness, subjective situation awareness, and task confidence were each measured through the Situation Awareness Global Awareness Technique, the Mission Awareness Rating Scale, and collective efficacy, respectively. Results showed that all three metacognitive experiences interacted in predicting team performance, such that task confidence strengthened the relationship between actual situation knowledge and performance when the team’s perceived situation awareness was low and weakened the relationship when the team’s perceived situation awareness was high. These results suggest that it is always important to have the necessary actual situation knowledge to complete a task, but there are times in which aspects of awareness in relation to judgments or feelings should be low in order to create the necessary drive to regulate one’s behavior.

In contemporary society, teamwork is prominent as a critical component in many complex environments. Much of the success of teamwork is coupled with both team cognition and the contextual surround that a team is required to perform in. Over the last thirty years there have been various formulations of team simulations that represent team cognition and the context in various ways—some more beneficial than others. This paper examines numerous practical considerations, lessons learned, and insights developed over specific team simulations that our research group has engaged with over the years.