The lower Nile River is a vital drinking and irrigation water source in Egypt. Human activities adjacent to rivers deteriorate the quality of such water resources. The water quality profiles of 23 sites along the Nile were calculated in accordance with the model (Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment-Water Quality Index [CCME-WQI]). The WQI results indicated that 65%, 100%, and 96% of the Nile River water samples were suitable for drinking, irrigation and aquatic life uses, respectively. These results indicated slight effects on the Nile water quality profile due to different activities, including agricultural runoff and potential industrial and municipal effluents. The metal quality and pollution indices were calculated to assess the contamination with metals (Fe, Mn, Ni, Co, Cr, Cu, Zn, Pb, and Cd). The metal index results for agriculture purposes indicated that the water quality in all collected samples was in the excellent category and had no adverse effect. Moreover, the study showed that the water quality profile of Nile River water had different metal pollution components, notably Pb for drinking and Pb, Co, Cu, and Cd for aquatic life usage, respectively.

The Nile River is the soul of Egypt, providing more than 95% of its freshwater demand. However, it receives different pollutants discharged into the water body along its stretch from Aswan (downstream of the High Dam) to Cairo, which is approximately 950 km. Alternatively, sediments play an important role in the dynamics of the entire aquatic environment and act as a sink or a source of pollution in the overlying water under various conditions. This study assessed sediment quality and its heavy metal levels. Several indices and human health risks were determined to assess the potential ecological risk of the Nile River sediment. On the basis of the index results, Cd registered the highest pollution ranking, whereas Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, and Ni had the lowest effect. In another context, southern sites represented the lowest ecological risk relative to the central and northern sectors. The results of the noncarcinogenic hazard indices, hazard quotient, and hazard index in addition to the lifetime cancer risk were below the acceptable international limits, confirming that there are no adverse effects on the exposed population due to the Nile sediment.

El-Bahr El-Pharaony Drain is a crucial source of irrigation water and fisheries in Menoufia Governorate of Egypt. According to the results demonstrated by the present study, its water may be suitable for irrigation; yet it is an inappropriate habitat for aquatic life, and the water quality is categorized as fair (WQI=67) and marginal (WQI=46), respectively. The human health risk of metal exposure through Oreochromis niloticus (major fish species consumed from the drain) was assessed. Liver tissue of O. niloticus displays the highest accumulation potential for Fe, Mn, Zn, Ni, Cu, Co, Pb and Cd, while muscles and gonads have a poor accumulation capacity. HQ values delineates that individual metals (except cobalt) in Oreochromis niloticus do not pose any particular concern to human health risk. Hazard Index value (HI=4.72) based on combined heavy metals accumulation indicates a possible moderate risk status. The present study recommends a rapid and periodically Nile water discharge into the drain via El-Rayah El-Menoufy to improve the water quality and prevent the continued water deterioration of El-Bahr El-Pharaony Drain, in addition to a continuous monitoring and awareness creation to avoid possible human health risk for fish consumption patterns in communities around the drain to alleviate an impending public health disaster.