Plant flammability research has proven pivotal in comprehending the contribution of vegetation to the flammability of forest ecosystems. Yet, the relationship between many leaf chemical traits and plant flammability is poorly understood. While terpenes and some leaf nutrients in plants have been extensively studied for their role in flammability, a wide array of other secondary metabolites remain unexplored in this context. Here, we present the volatile secondary metabolites composition of fresh leaves from nine dominant species from central Chile, both native and exotic, and determine whether there is variability within and among species in chemical composition and flammability. Moreover, we investigate how these compounds influence various leaf flammability traits. The Chilean Mediterranean ecosystem emerges as a useful study site given its unique endemic flora, increased frequency of forest fires, proliferation of invasive plants and extensive land conversion that favors the spread of fire-prone exotic species, and significant scarcity of phytochemical research dedicated to this ecosystem. A total of 118 volatile chemical compounds were quantified, belonging to over ten groups of volatile secondary metabolites. Terpenes, ketones, and hydrocarbons comprised 75 % of these compounds, and each species displayed a unique phytochemical profile. Surprisingly, some native species (Citronella mucronata, Cryptocarya alba) exhibited equivalent or higher leaf flammability than the well-known flammable exotics Eucalyptus globulus and Pinus radiata, respectively. Leaf flammability was best explained by the concentration of aldehydes, ketones, green leaf volatiles, and aromatic compounds. Interestingly, terpenes as well as moisture content were not significantly correlated with flammability. In conclusion, our results highlight the importance of considering a broader range of phytochemicals, beyond terpenes, to fully understand leaf flammability among species. Consequently, a deeper understanding -within and across ecosystems- of the influence exerted by diverse

As global commitments to restoration are underway, science is needed to support capacity to achieve meaningful gains for ecosystems and human communities. In Chile, identification and generation of appropriate plant material is a barrier to achieving major restoration goals under the Paris Climate Agreement. Understanding genetic differentiation among plant populations is needed to maximize restoration success. For Araucaria araucana, a highly threatened iconic South American tree, this information is greatly needed to guide restoration and conservation efforts because this species occurs across a strong climate gradient. We grew seedlings from 12 populations of A. araucana across its range in Chile in a common garden to assess regional (coastal versus Andes mountain ranges) and population variation in key plant traits and relate this variation to environmental variables. We demonstrate that A. araucana is differentiated within regions and populations across its range in Chile by a suite of traits, particularly branch number and length (showing plant architectural differences) and needle width (showing leaf investment differences). We show that this variation is at least partly explained by climate and soil variables, with the most variation explained by differences between regions in temperature annual range. Thus, we recommend that restoration efforts focus on conserving genetic variation among and within regions and their populations and preventing the translocations of genotypes between coastal and Andes populations.

We argue that the need for a quality seed supply chain is a major bottleneck for the restoration of Chile's native ecosystems, thus supplementing the list of bottlenecks proposed by Bannister et al. in 2018. Specifically, there is a need for defining seed transfer zones, developing standards and capacities for properly collecting and storing seeds, reducing information gaps on seed physiology and longevity, and implementing an efficient seed supply chain with certification of seed origin and quality. Without such capacities, countries are unlikely to meet their restoration commitments. Although we focus on bottlenecks in Chile, the issues we raise are relevant to other countries and thus the global agenda for ecological restoration.

Natural regeneration has been proposed as a cost-effective forest restoration approach for both small and large-scale initiatives. However, attributes for assessing the success of forest restoration through natural regeneration may vary among them in spatial patterns depending on the scale of analysis and on environmental gradients. Here we analysed the spatial patterns of recovery completeness (i.e. how similar attributes in restored forests are to the same attributes in reference forests) in response to environmental factors in a Mediterranean forest landscape of Central Chile. We evaluated (1) forest recovery completeness using basal area (BA), quadratic mean diameter (QMD), adult species density (ASD), adult species richness (ASR), and seedling species richness (SSR); (2) the spatial congruence of recovery completeness estimated by each of these indicators; and (3) the environmental factors potentially shaping these spatial patterns. We used field measurements and geospatial information sources to quantify and predict indicator responses by fitting boosted regression tree models. To assess the spatial congruence of predictions we overlaid high-level recovery completeness values for all indicators. Overall recovery completeness in the study area was 72.7%, suggesting positive prospects for attaining fully restored forests. Recovery completeness had a resulted higher for diversity (92.3%-99.6%) than structural forest attributes (33.5%-76.9%); however, spatial congruence among recovery indicators was low due to the uneven spatial responses of each indicator. The maximum potential spatial congruence was < 10%, and was predicted only by two environmental variables (soil bulk density and slope). Our results suggest that low spatial congruence among forest recovery indicators may hinder the monitoring of restoration at large scales. The implications of such divergence in defining restoration success can be enormous given the current global challenge of forest restoration. Although our research was tested in a threatened region of global importance, our results may have wider significance for restoration planning providing cautionary notes and recommendations for the appropriate use of forest recovery indicators when monitoring large-scale restoration projects.

Re-establishment of native forest species in rural landscapes may be conditioned by the proximity of seed sources, the post-disturbance composition of successional patches and the seed dispersal patterns of frugivores. Knowledge of seed dispersal rates into early seral communities, and how these are influenced by the structural and compositional characteristics of these communities is still quite poor. We used an observational approach to quantify the seed rain and seed limitation (SL) (proportion of sites to which seeds were not dispersed) of woody species during two growing seasons in three early successional shrublands with contrasting species composition and attractiveness to frugivores on Chiloe Island, Chile. We compared species immigration based on dispersal types (bird- vs. wind dispersed) and life-form (shrubs vs. trees). Concomitantly, we used an experimental approach to test whether artificial perches would relieve SL and enhance seed dispersal and seedling establishment of fleshy-fruited species. Most seeds collected were of pioneer shrubs already present in the early successional sites. Few (5%) were from trees appearing only in the surrounding second-growth forest. Density of seeds from fleshy-fruited trees and shrubs was seven times higher in the seral community most attractive to frugivores, whereas density of seeds from wind-dispersed trees was similar among communities. Artificial perches significantly increased the density and species richness of seeds from fleshy-fruited trees in all communities, but the magnitude of the facilitation effect depended on the ecological context of each seral community. Seed rain enhancement was higher in the community less attractive to frugivores. Seedling recruitment, however, remained low even under perches, indicating that additional constraints act during seed germination and/or seedling survival and growth. Synthesis and applications. Forest succession in this rural landscape may be delayed or arrested by extremely low seed rain, despite the proximity (<100 m) of seed sources in older forest patches. Although artificial perches significantly enhance inputs of bird-dispersed tree seeds into shrublands, especially where fleshy-fruited pioneer species are absent from the seral community, they do not overcome other site-related barriers to establishment, as the lack of shaded places and limited soil drainage. Thus, in some ecological contexts, multiple approaches, such as direct seeding or planting, and the use of nurse plants, may be required to enhance seed rain and seedling establishment of fleshy-fruited species.

Summary 1. Most studies of tree regeneration are limited to particular environments and may not capture variation in the biotic or abiotic factors that regulate recruitment at larger spatial scales. Critical processes such as competition and facilitation can vary spatially, along gradients in resource availability and environmental stress, and temporally, with plant development. 2. We examined patterns of natural tree recruitment and experimentally followed germination and seedling survival of five tree species (pioneer to late seral) in three early successional communities of contrasting bio‐physical environments in a rural landscape on Chiloé Island, Chile. 3. We quantified natural recruitment of juveniles and saplings and assessed relationships between tree density and local environment. We used a removal experiment to test the influence of early successional vegetation on seed germination and early survival of tree species. In each community, seeds and seedlings were placed in paired experimental plots from which vegetation was removed or left intact (control). To identify potential correlates of germination and seedling survival, we measured light transmittance and soil properties in each plot. 4. In all communities, established vegetation had either a positive or neutral effect on germination and/or survival although responses varied among life stages and species. Germination and survival were correlated with the lower levels of light in controls, consistent with negative correlations between natural tree densities and light. Vegetation cover was not dense enough to facilitate survival of late successional species, but not too dense to inhibit survival of shade‐intolerant or mid‐tolerant species. Among communities, natural densities of juveniles were greatest under conditions where experimental germination rates were highest. Seedling height growth was lowest in the community characterized by waterlogged soils, consistent with the naturally low transition rate from juveniles to saplings and a negative correlation between density of shade‐intolerant trees and soil moisture. 5. Synthesis. Our experiments indicate strong, mostly positive controls (facilitation) on tree recruitment in early seral shrublands with differing bio‐physical environments. Benefits of shading are manifested at different stages in the life history. However, community context is critical: variation in seasonal patterns of soil moisture may explain spatial variation in the density and size structure of natural tree recruitment.

Senda Darwin Biological Station (SDBS) is a field research center immersed in the rural landscape of northern Chiloe island (42 5), where remnant patches of the original evergreen forests coexist with open pastures, secondary successional shrublands, Sphagnum bogs, Eucalyptus plantations and other anthropogenic cover types, constituting an agricultural frontier similar to other regions in Chile and Latin America. Since 1994, we have conducted long-term research on selected species of plants (e.g., Pilgerodendron uviferum) and animals (e.g., Aphrastura spinicauda, Dromiciops glirioides) that are considered threatened, poorly known or important for their ecological functions in local ecosystems, and on ecosystems of regional and global relevance (e.g., Sphagnum bogs, North Patagonian and Valdivian rain forests). Research has assessed the responses of species and ecosystems to anthropogenic land-use change, climate change, and the impact of management. During this period, more than 100 scientific publications in national and international journals, and 30 theses (graduate and undergraduate) have been produced by scientists and students associated with SDBS. Because of our understanding of the key role that humans play in ecological processes at this agricultural frontier, since the establishment of SDBS we have been committed to creative research on the communication of science to society and ecological education. The integration of SDBS to the nascent Chilean network of long-term socio-ecological research will consolidate and strengthen basic and applied research to project our work into the next decade.

Senda Darwin Biological Station (SDBS) is a field research center immersed in the rural landscape of northern Chiloé island (42º S), where remnant patches of the original evergreen forests coexist with open pastures, secondary successional shrublands, Sphagnum bogs, Eucalyptus plantations and other anthropogenic cover types, constituting an agricultural frontier similar to other regions in Chile and Latin America.Since 1994, we have conducted long-term research on selected species of plants (e.g., Pilgerodendron uviferum) and animals (e.g., Aphrastura spinicauda, Dromiciops glirioides) that are considered threatened, poorly known or important for their ecological functions in local ecosystems, and on ecosystems of regional and global relevance (e.g., Sphagnum bogs, North Patagonian and Valdivian rain forests).Research has assessed the responses of species and ecosystems to anthropogenic land-use change, climate change, and the impact of management.During this period, more than 100 scientific publications in national and international journals, and 30 theses (graduate and undergraduate) have been produced by scientists and students associated with SDBS.Because of our understanding of the key role that humans play in ecological processes at this agricultural frontier, since the establishment of SDBS we have been committed to creative research on the communication of science to society and ecological education.The integration of SDBS to the nascent Chilean network of long-term socio-ecological research will consolidate and strengthen basic and applied research to project our work into the next decade.

La Estación Biológica Senda Darwin (EBSD) constituye un centro de investigación inmerso en el paisaje rural del norte de la Isla de Chiloé (42º S), donde fragmentos del bosque siempreverde original coexisten con praderas de uso ganadero, turberas de Sphagnum, matorrales sucesionales, plantaciones de Eucalyptus y otras formaciones de origen antropogénico. Desde 1994 hemos realizado estudios de largo plazo centrados en algunas especies de plantas (e.g., Pilgerodendron uviferum D. Don) y animales (e.g., Aphrastura spinicauda Gmelin, Dromiciops gliroides [Thomas]) catalogados como amenazados o escasamente conocidos y en ecosistemas nativos de importancia regional y global (e.g., turberas de Sphagnum, bosque Valdiviano y Nordpatagónico). Las investigaciones han considerado las respuestas de las especies y de los ecosistemas frente al cambio antropogénico del paisaje y cambio climático, así como los efectos de diferentes formas de manejo. Este escenario es semejante al de otras regiones de Chile y Latinoamérica lo que da generalidad a nuestros resultados y modelos. En este período, investigadores asociados a la EBSD han producido más de un centenar de publicaciones en revistas nacionales e internacionales y 30 tesis de pre y postgrado. Entendiendo el papel clave de los seres humanos en los procesos ecológicos de la zona rural, la EBSD ha desarrollado un programa de educación ecológica y vinculación del avance científico con la sociedad local y nacional. La integración de la EBSD a la naciente red de Sitios de Estudios Socio-Ecológicos de Largo Plazo en Chile consolidará y fortalecerá la investigación básica y aplicada que realizamos para proyectarla hacia la siguiente década.Senda Darwin Biological Station (SDBS) is a field research center immersed in the rural landscape of northern Chiloé island (42º S), where remnant patches of the original evergreen forests coexist with open pastures, secondary successional shrublands, Sphagnum bogs, Eucalyptus plantations and other anthropogenic cover types, constituting an agricultural frontier similar to other regions in Chile and Latin America. Since 1994, we have conducted long-term research on selected species of plants (e.g., Pilgerodendron uviferum) and animals (e.g., Aphrastura spinicauda, Dromiciops glirioides) that are considered threatened, poorly known or important for their ecological functions in local ecosystems, and on ecosystems of regional and global relevance (e.g., Sphagnum bogs, North Patagonian and Valdivian rain forests). Research has assessed the responses of species and ecosystems to anthropogenic land-use change, climate change, and the impact of management. During this period, more than 100 scientific publications in national and international journals, and 30 theses (graduate and undergraduate) have been produced by scientists and students associated with SDBS. Because of our understanding of the key role that humans play in ecological processes at this agricultural frontier, since the establishment of SDBS we have been committed to creative research on the communication of science to society and ecological education. The integration of SDBS to the nascent Chilean network of long-term socio-ecological research will consolidate and strengthen basic and applied research to project our work into the next decade.

Habitat fragmentation may result in changes in species number and population abundance among habitats that differ in area, structure, or edge characteristics. These changes, in turn, may result in alterations in ecosystem process such as decomposition of organic matter. Through an experimental approach, we compared the beetles assemblages associated with dung and decomposition of cow feces in a continuous portion of Maulino forest, forest fragments and in pine plantations that surround this forest and forest remnants. Abundance and richness of dung-associated beetles were lower in forest fragments compared to the continuous forest and pine plantations. However, dung decomposition was similar in these three habitats. Beetle abundance, species richness and decomposition did not vary along edges of forest fragments and pine plantations, but beetle abundance and decomposition rate varied on the border compared to the interior of the continuous forest. Thus, although beetle assemblage changes across the fragmented landscape, these variations in species richness and abundance did not translate into alterations of an ecosystem process such as dung-decomposition, as occurs in tropical forests. The beetle assemblage at pine plantations comprises only native species and dung decomposition was similar in both fragments and continuous forest. Therefore, pine plantations maintain at least partially the structural and functional biodiversity of the native fauna, connecting the native remnants throughout the landscape, a crucial factor in biodiversity conservation.

Habitat fragmentation may result in changes in species number and population abundance among habitats that differ in area, structure, or edge characteristics. These changes, in turn, may result in alterations in ecosystem process such as decomposition of organic matter. Through an experimental approach, we compared the beetles assemblages associated with dung and decomposition of cow feces in a continuous portion of Maulino forest, forest fragments and in pine plantations that surround this forest and forest remnants. Abundance and richness of dung-associated beetles were lower in forest fragments compared to the continuous forest and pine plantations. However, dung decomposition was similar in these three habitats. Beetle abundance, species richness and decomposition did not vary along edges of forest fragments and pine plantations, but beetle abundance and decomposition rate varied on the border compared to the interior of the continuous forest. Thus, although beetle assemblage changes across the fragmented landscape, these variations in species richness and abundance did not translate into alterations of an ecosystem process such as dung-decomposition, as occurs in tropical forests. The beetle assemblage at pine plantations comprises only native species and dung decomposition was similar in both fragments and continuous forest. Therefore, pine plantations maintain at least partially the structural and functional biodiversity of the native fauna, connecting the native remnants throughout the landscape, a crucial factor in biodiversity conservationLa fragmentación del hábitat puede cambiar el número de especies y la abundancia poblacional entre hábitats que difieren en área, estructura o en las características del borde. Estos cambios, a su vez, pueden alterar procesos ecosistémicos como la descomposición de la materia orgánica. A través de una aproximación experimental, comparamos un ensamble de coleópteros asociados a heces y la descomposición de estas en una porción continua de bosque Maulino, fragmentos de bosque y en la matriz de plantaciones de pino que rodean estos remanentes de bosque. La abundancia y riqueza de coleópteros asociados a las heces fueron más bajas en los fragmentos de bosque que en el bosque continuo y en las plantaciones de pino. Sin embargo, la descomposición de las heces fue similar entre los tres hábitats. La abundancia de coleópteros, riqueza de especies y descomposición no variaron en los bordes de los fragmentos ni en los bordes de las plantaciones de pino, sin embargo, la abundancia y descomposición variaron en el borde en comparación al centro del bosque continuo. Así, aunque el ensamble de coleópteros cambia a través de este paisaje fragmentado, estos cambios no se tradujeron en alteraciones en procesos ecosistémicos como la descomposición de heces, como ocurre en bosques tropicales. El ensamble de coleópteros en las plantaciones de pino solo tuvo especies nativas y la descomposición de heces fue similar a la de los fragmentos y a la del bosque continuo. Por lo tanto, estas plantaciones de pino mantienen por lo menos parcialmente la biodiversidad estructural y funcional de la fauna nativa, conectando remanentes de bosque nativo a través del paisaje, un factor crucial en la conservación de la biodiversidad