Caprine herpesvirus 1 (CpHV-1) is responsible for significant economic losses in goat farming. The CpHV-1 genital infection in goats has been used as a homologous animal model for the study of human herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2). This study aimed to investigate the in vitro virucidal and antiviral effect of lemon juice (LJ) and its main component, citric acid (CA), against CpHV-1 on Madin-Darby Bovine Kidney (MDBK) cells. Cytotoxicity was assessed using an XTT assay, while viral titers were determined by the Reed-Muench method and viral DNA was quantified via qPCR. Pure LJ (pH 2.3) and its corresponding CA solution demonstrated potent and rapid virucidal activity, reducing the viral titer by over 5.0 log10 TCID50/50 µL within 1 min. When applied after viral entry, a non-cytotoxic dilution of LJ (pH 4.32) significantly inhibited viral replication, causing a 2.5 log10 TCID50/50 µL reduction in viral titer and a corresponding decrease in viral DNA. The antiviral effects were minimal at a near-neutral pH of 6.67, probably interacting with envelope structures. These results suggest that LJ could be a potential low-cost topical agent or disinfectant for controlling CpHV-1 in goat populations and offer a basis for translational research on human herpesviruses.

Effective vaccines against sexually transmitted pathogens must elicit protective immunity at mucosal surfaces, particularly within the female reproductive tract. Caprine herpesvirus 1 (CpHV-1) causes genital disease, reproductive failure, and neonatal mortality in goats and provides a biologically relevant large-animal model for human genital herpesvirus infection. Here, we evaluated a mucosal vaccination strategy based on a bovine herpesvirus 4 (BoHV-4) vector expressing the CpHV-1 immunodominant glycoprotein D (BoHV4-A-gD(cp)gD(106)ΔTK). Goats were immunized via the intravaginal or intranasal route using a prime-boost regimen and subsequently challenged intravaginally with virulent CpHV-1. Ex vivo tissue analyses showed efficient transduction of nasal mucosa and limited vaginal transduction restricted to the cervical region. Despite these differences, both immunization routes conferred complete protection against disease. Vaccinated animals showed no fever or genital pathology following challenge, in contrast to unvaccinated controls. Viral shedding was significantly reduced in vaccinated goats, with intravaginal immunization providing superior control of genital virus excretion. Both routes induced CpHV-1-specific systemic antibody responses, including functional neutralizing antibodies, with higher neutralizing titers observed after intranasal vaccination. These findings demonstrate that BoHV-4-based vectors can induce robust protective immunity against genital herpesvirus infection when delivered via either local or distal mucosal routes. The results highlight the importance of mucosal vaccination strategies and support the versatility of BoHV-4 as a vaccine platform for sexually transmitted infections. This study further establishes the goat-CpHV-1 model as a valuable translational system for the preclinical evaluation of mucosal herpesvirus vaccines.

Objectives Although artificial intelligence, including machine learning offers transformative potential, its use in infectious disease epidemiology has been understudied. Emerging infectious diseases including WNV infection remains a leading cause of mortality globally. The study aimed to provide a decade-long insight into the global trends on WNV outbreaks. Study design The study offers a ML-powered framework to guide preventive strategies. Methods Environmental indices including neighbourhood greenness, forest cover, and temperature were captured using 250m resolution MODIS satellite imagery. Seasonal human, avian and equine WNV surveillance records and other regional indicators for Italy from 2013 to 2023 were retrieved from surveillance repositories. Spatial trends and interactions were evaluated using spatial autocorrelation analyses. Further, a ML architecture was developed for prediction of high or low WNV classification based on satellite imagery of climatic indices (deep neural networks) compared with non-raster variables (gradient boosting machine). Results Moran's I estimation, confirmed by the Monte Carlo approximation indicated evidence of significant spatial autocorrelation with Moran's I values of 0.0561 (P < 0.00259) and 0.0561 (P < 0.009) respectively while significant clustering was observed in regions of northern Italy. The ML-based deep neural network yielded an accuracy of 80% and 79.7% for NDVI- and LST-based raster inputs, while GBM model isolated key predictors of human WNV confirmed cases with an AUC of 0.835. Conclusions This study presents a scalable approach for human WNV outbreak prediction incorporating geospatial analyses and artificial intelligence, providing insights on the disease epidemiology and a framework for other emerging infectious disease investigations.

Noroviruses are a major cause of acute gastroenteritis, often transmitted through contaminated food and water. In this study, lemon juice (LJ), rich in citric acid (CA) and flavonoids, was tested against Feline Calicivirus (FCV), used as a surrogate of human norovirus. Significant virucidal activity was observed for pure LJ (pH = 2.3), with a reduction in viral titers as high as 4.50 log10 TCID50/50 µL after 30 s and complete inactivation after 1 min. LJ also showed limited virucidal activity at a dilution of 1:2000 (pH = 6.7), with a reduction in viral titer of 0.75 log10 TCID50/50 µL. CA (at the same molarity as CA in pure LJ and adjusted to pH = 2.3) exhibited virucidal effects comparable to pure LJ, with a decrease in viral titers as high as 3.75 log10 TCID50/50 µL, whilst diluted CA (pH = 6.7) did not show significant effects. This study demonstrated the virucidal efficacy of LJ, suggesting the role of pH and, eventually, of LJ bioactive compounds against a norovirus surrogate. Due to its large use in food preparation, LJ has the potential to enhance the safety of raw food. Also, broader applications in personal hygiene and surface disinfection could be devised.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the leading cause of cervical cancer worldwide. The pathogenesis of HPV is mainly dependent on its E7 and E6 proteins. Up to now, different adjuvants have been used to enhance the efficacy of the immune response against these two proteins. In this study, Flagellin (FLA) was used as adjuvant to test adjuvant activity and also see whether its orientation of attachment can affect the immune response pattern. The E7d-FLA and FLA-E7d in pET28a vector were constructed and then the recombinant proteins were expressed in E. coli BL21 (DE3) bacteria under IPTG induction. The expression of recombinant E7d-FLA and FLA-E7d proteins is confirmed by SDS-PAGE and western blot. Then, recombinant fusion proteins were purified using a nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid (Ni–NTA) column. The recombinant proteins were checked for endotoxin contamination and then quantified by Bradford. Eight-to-ten-week-old male Balb/C mice were immunized subcutaneously with 10 µg recombinant E7d-FLA, FLA-E7d and HPV16E7d vaccine on days 0, 14 and 28. In addition, PBS and FLA groups were considered as control group. Then, spleen cells were harvested to assess lymphocyte proliferation and IFN-γ, IL-4 and IL-17 cytokines. In addition, mice sera were used for specific total IgG and IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b and IgM antibodies assessment by ELISA. The results show that E7d-FLA is more potent in the induction of lymphocyte proliferation, CTL response and specific total IgG, IgG2a and IgG2b response, while the FLA-E7d vaccine was associated with more IFN-γ, and IL-17 cytokine response. The results of this study proved the ability of FLA as an adjuvant in fusion with E7d in the induction of cellular and humoral immune responses. In addition, it also emphasizes that antigen–adjuvant orientation can affect the immune response strength and polarization against HPV E7d vaccine candidate.

Background: The spread of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae (ESBL-PE) strains in food poses a potential risk to human health. The aim of the study was to determine the occurrence of ESBL-PE and to investigate their distribution on foods. Methods: A total of 1000 food samples, including both raw and ready-to-eat products, was analyzed for the presence of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae using chromogenic selective agar. Antibiotic resistance in the isolated strains was assessed using conventional methods, while whole-genome sequencing was employed to predict antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes. Results: The overall occurrence of ESBL-PE strains was 2.8%, with the highest contamination in raw meat samples (10%). A total of 31 multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains was isolated, mainly Escherichia coli, followed by Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella enterica, and Enterobacter hormaechei. All strains exhibited high levels of resistance to at least four different β-lactam antibiotics, as well as to other antimicrobial classes including sulfonamides, tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, and quinolones. Whole-genome sequencing identified 63 antimicrobial resistance genes, with blaCTX-M being the most prevalent ESBL gene. Twenty-eight (90%) isolates carried Inc plasmids, known vectors of multiple antimicrobial resistance genes, including those associated with ESBLs. Furthermore, several virulence genes were identified. Conclusions: The contamination of food with ESBL-PE represents a potential public health risk, underscoring the importance of the implementation of genomic surveillance to monitor and control the spread of antimicrobial resistance.

The recent COVID-19 pandemic has prompted the scientific community to prioritize the discovery of preventive methods and new therapeutics, including the investigation of natural compounds with antiviral potential. Fungal secondary metabolites (SMs) represent a promising source of antiviral drugs due to their structural diversity and intrinsic biocompatibility. Herein, the antiviral activity of 6-pentyl-α-pyrone (6PP) against bovine coronavirus (BCoV) has been evaluated in vitro. Considering that BCoV and SARS-CoV-2 are both members of the Betacoronavirus genus and share several key features, BCoV represents a valuable reference model for human coronavirus research. A non-cytotoxic dose of 6PP was used on MDBK cells to evaluate its antiviral activity against BCoV. Different experimental conditions were employed to examine cell monolayer protection both pre- and post-infection, as well as the potential inhibition of viral internalization. Overall, post-infection 6PP treatment reduced viral load and decreased viral internalization. Results were analyzed using viral titration and quantitative PCR, while data interpretation was performed by statistical software tools. This study presents a novel fluorescence quantification approach with high confidence demonstrated by its significant concordance with RT-qPCR results. These data suggest that 6PP could be an effective antiviral agent for BCoV, warranting further investigation of its role in coronavirus inhibition.

Caprine herpesvirus 1 (CpHV-1), a member of the Herpesvirales order, Herpesviridae family, Alphaherpesvirinae subfamily, and Simplexvirus genus, is classically associated with two distinct clinical syndromes. In kids, CpHV-1 induces severe systemic disease with high morbidity and mortality, whereas in adult goats, the infection leads to genital lesions such as vulvovaginitis or balanoposthitis, with abortions occurring mainly in the second half of gestation. CpHV-1 shares several biological characteristics with human herpesvirus 2, including molecular features, tropism for vaginal epithelium, genital lesion nature, and latency in the sacral ganglia. These features make CpHV-1-infected goats a reliable animal model for studying human herpesvirus-induced genital disease, relevant for pathogenic research, as well as the development of new vaccines and antiviral agents. Recent full sequencing of the CpHV-1 genome has identified at least 10 genes encoding glycoproteins. Among these, glycoprotein D (gD) has been characterized but not yet exploited for immunogenic or diagnostic purposes. In this study, the structural features of CpHV-1 gD were predicted using in silico analysis. A truncated version of gD lacking the transmembrane domain (secreted glycoprotein D [Sec-gD]) was subsequently generated and expressed in mammalian cells, enabling its secretion into the culture medium. Despite the structural modifications, Sec-gD retained a conserved glycosylation pattern, as confirmed by N-glycosylation mutants generation and peptide-N-glycosidase F treatment. Furthermore, the antigenic properties of Sec-gD were preserved, as demonstrated by reverse serum neutralization assays. Notably, the culture supernatant containing Sec-gD was directly usable in diagnostic enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, supporting its potential as a valuable tool for both diagnostic and immunization strategies.IMPORTANCECaprine herpesvirus 1 (CpHV-1)-infected goats represent a large animal model for studying human herpesvirus-induced genital disease and could be utilized for pathogenic research, as well as for the development of new vaccines and antiviral agents. CpHV-1 glycoprotein D can be efficiently produced and rescued from the supernatant of transfected mammalian cells, retaining its immunogenic properties, and could be used for immunogenic and diagnostic purposes.

Caprine herpesvirus 1 (CpHV-1), a member of the Herpesvirales order, Herpesviridae family, Alphaherpesvirinae subfamily, and Simplexvirus genus, is classically associated to two distinct clinical syndromes. In kids, CpHV-1 induces severe systemic disease with high morbidity and mortality, in adult goats, the infection leads to genital lesions such as vulvovaginitis or balanoposthitis, with abortions occurring mainly in the second half of gestation. CpHV-1 shares several biological characteristics with human herpesvirus 2 (HSV-2), including molecular features, tropism for vaginal epithelium, genital lesion nature and latency in the sacral ganglia. These features make CpHV-1-infected goats a reliable animal model for studying human herpesvirus-induced genital disease, employable for pathogenic research, as well as the development of new vaccines and antiviral agents. Recent full sequencing of CpHV-1 genome has identified at least ten genes encoding glycoproteins. Among these, glycoprotein D (gD) has been characterized but not yet exploited for immunogenic or diagnostic purposes. In this study, the structural features of CpHV-1 gD were predicted using in silico analysis. A truncated version of gD lacking the transmembrane domain (Sec-gD) was subsequently generated and expressed in mammalian cells, enabling its secretion into the culture medium. Despite the structural modifications, Sec-gD retained a conserved glycosylation pattern, as confirmed by PNGase F treatment. Furthermore, the antigenic properties of Sec-gD were preserved, as demonstrated by reverse serum neutralization assays. Notably, the culture supernatant containing Sec-gD was directly usable in diagnostic enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, supporting its potential as a valuable tool for both diagnostic and immunization strategies. Importance CpHV-1-infected goats represent a large animal model for studying human herpesvirus-induced genital disease, and could be utilized for pathogenic research, as well as for the development of new vaccines and antiviral agents. CpHV-1 gD can be efficiently produced and rescued from the supernatant of transfected mammalian cells, retaining its immunogenic properties and could be employed for immunogenic and diagnostic purposes.

The emergence of colistin-resistant Enterobacteriaceae in food products is a growing concern due to the potential transfer of resistance to human pathogens. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of colistin-resistant Enterobacteriaceae in raw and ready-to-eat food samples collected from two regions of Italy (Apulia and Basilicata) and to evaluate their resistance phenotypes and genetic characteristics. A total of 1000 food samples were screened, with a prevalence of 4.4% of colistin-resistant Enterobacteriaceae. The majority of the isolates belonged to Enterobacter spp. (60%), followed by Moellerella wisconsensis, Atlantibacter hermannii, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Escherichia coli, among others. Genomic sequencing and antimicrobial susceptibility testing revealed high levels of resistance to β-lactams, with most isolates exhibiting multidrug resistance (MDR). Notably, seven isolates harbored mcr genes (mcr-1, mcr-9, and mcr-10). Additionally, in four of them were predicted the IncHI2 plasmids, known to facilitate the spread of colistin resistance. Furthermore, 56 antimicrobial resistance genes were identified, suggesting the genetic mechanisms underlying resistance to several antibiotic classes. Virulence gene analysis showed that E. coli and other isolates carried genes linked to pathogenicity, increasing the potential risk to public health. This study emphasizes the role of food as a potential reservoir for colistin-resistant bacteria and the importance of monitoring the spread of AMR genes in foodborne pathogens.

The discovery, commercialization, and regular administration of antimicrobial agents have revolutionized the therapeutic paradigm, making it possible to treat previously untreatable and fatal infections. However, the excessive use of antibiotics has led to develop resistance soon after their use in clinical practice, to the point of becoming a global emergency. The mechanisms of bacterial resistance to antibiotics are manifold, including mechanisms of destruction or inactivation, target site modification, or active efflux, and represent the main examples of evolutionary adaptation for the survival of bacterial species. The acquirement of new resistance mechanisms is a consequence of the great genetic plasticity of bacteria, which triggers specific responses that result in mutational adaptation, acquisition of genetic material, or alteration of gene expression, virtually producing resistance to all currently available antibiotics. Understanding resistance processes is critical to the development of new antimicrobial agents to counteract drug-resistant microorganisms. In this review, both the mechanisms of action of antibiotic resistance (AMR) and the antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) mainly found in clinical and environmental bacteria will be reviewed. Furthermore, the evolutionary background of multidrug-resistant bacteria will be examined, and some promising elements to control or reduce the emergence and spread of AMR will be proposed.

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Canine enteric coronavirus (CeCoV) is a globally distributed enteric pathogen that causes significant harm to canines. The objective of this systematic review was to examine the global dissemination of CeCoV and assess the potential for infected canines to be exposed to various CeCoV genotypes and subtypes. With an aggregated prevalence of 18.8%, the study predicted regional variations, indicating that CeCoV is an exceptionally prevalent disease. The increased likelihood that infected canines will be asymptomatic is a significant cause for concern, as undetected cases of CeCoV infection could persist and spread the disease. This underscores the significance of ongoing surveillance of CeCoV in order to avert its transmission. Nevertheless, further investigation is necessary in order to ascertain the moderators that significantly impact the prevalence and distribution of distinct subtypes and genotypes of CeCoV. Hence, it is imperative to undertake randomized clinical trials in order to acquire a more accurate understanding of the variables that influence the prevalence of CeCoV. By conducting ongoing surveillance, regional variations in the prevalence of CeCoV in canines can be accounted for, thereby enhancing our comprehension of the illness and ultimately impeding its transmission.

Gram-positive catalase-negative cocci (GPCNCs) are significant components of the genital microbiota in sheep and goats. However, characterizing them can be difficult due to overlapping culture features and the limited information on their susceptibility to antibiotics. In this study, 97 foreskin and 13 vaginal swabs were investigated using a culturomic approach. Of 110 animals, 76 (69.09 %) hosted GPCNCs, including strains from Streptococcaceae (37, 33.64 %), Aerococcaceae (30, 27.27 %), Enterococcaceae (6, 5.45 %) and other minor species. With increasing antimicrobial resistance rates in livestock, surveillance programs are globally required, so we conducted a pilot study on GPCNCs isolated from the genital mucosa surfaces of sheep and goats using the minimal inhibitory concentration assay (MIC). Due to gaps in interpretative standard breakpoints, normalized resistance interpretation was used for setting epidemiological susceptibility cut-off values (COWTs). Of 57 suitable strains, the majority (80.71 %) showed high COWTs with decrease susceptibility to at least one antimicrobial class, with 22.81 % displaying multiresistant profiles. Of interest, combined resistances to beta-lactams, macrolides, lincosamides, and tetracyclines were detected in strains of Streptococcus plurianimalium. Further combinations, including resistance to beta-lactams, pleuromutilins, aminoglycosides, and lincosamides, were also recorded in both Streptococcus uberis and Enterococcus spp. strains. Being beta-lactams, macrolides, and tetracyclines the most used antibiotics in livestock worldwide, our results highlight the need for their prudent use. Collectively, our findings highlight that small ruminant genital microbiota can serve as reservoirs for opportunistic severe pathogens, often zoonotic, carrying multidrug resistances, thus standing for high risks for both animals and humans.

Bovine coronavirus (BCoV) is distributed globally and mainly causes different clinical manifestations: enteric diarrhea in calves, winter dysentery in adults, and respiratory symptoms in cattle of all ages. Low mortality and high morbidity are the hallmarks of BCoV infection, usually associated with substantial economic losses for the livestock industry. Vaccination, combined with the implementation of biosecurity measures, is the key strategy for the prevention of infections. This pilot study evaluates the immunogenicity of a recombinant vaccine containing two BCoV antigens (S and M) in sheep, compared to vaccines containing only the M or S protein. Three groups of sheep were inoculated intramuscularly at day 0 and day 21 with recombinant adenoviruses expressing BCoV S protein (AdV-BCoV-S), BCoV M protein (AdV-BCoV-M), or both proteins (AdV-BCoV-S + M). Serum antibodies were evaluated using immunofluorescence (IF) and serum neutralization (SN) tests. Moderate seroconversion was observed by day 21, but serum antibodies detected via SN increased from 1:27.5 (day 21) to 1:90 (day 28) in sheep inoculated with the recombinant AdV expressing both the S- and M-BCoV proteins. Based on the SN results, a repeated-measures ANOVA test indicated a more significant difference in immune response between the three groups (F = 20.47; p < 0.001). The experimental investigation produced satisfactory results, highlighting that the S + M recombinant vaccine was immunogenic, stimulating a valid immune response. Despite some inherent limitations, including a small sample size and the absence of challenge tests, the study demonstrated the efficacy of the immune response induced via the recombinant vaccine containing both S and M proteins compared to that induced via the individual proteins S or M.

Goat may represent a valid large animal model for human pathogens and new vaccines testing. Appropriate vaccine administration is a critical component of a successful immunization program. The wrong route of administration may reduce the efficacy of the vaccine, whereas the proper administration strategy can enhance it. Viral vectors have been employed successfully for goat and sheep immunization; however, no data concerning the vaginal route are available. A viral vector’s ability to transduce the site of inoculation is of primary interest. In this study, a fast and reliable ex vivo assay for testing the transduction capability of an Ad5-based vector when intravaginally administered was developed. An Ad5 vector delivering an expression cassette with a bicistronic reporter gene, Ad5-CMV-turboGFP-IRES-Luc2, was constructed. We demonstrated Ad5-CMV-turboGFP-IRES-Luc2’s ability to transduce caprine vaginal mucosa by ex vivo bioluminescent imaging (BLI) employing a simple CCD camera apparatus for chemiluminescence western immunoblotting. These data, though simple, provide valuable insights into developing a vaginal immunization strategy using a viral vector-based vaccine to protect against pathogens causing genital diseases.

Alphaherpesviruses cause genital lesions and reproductive failure in both humans and animals. Their control is mainly based on prevention using hygienic prophylactic measures due to the absence of vaccines and limitations of antiviral drug therapy. Ozone is an oxidating gas showing a strong microbicidal activity on bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protozoa. The present study assessed the in vitro virucidal and antiviral activity of ozone against caprine herpesvirus type 1 (CpHV-1). The virucidal activity of a gaseous mixture containing O3 at 20 and 50 μg/mL was assessed against the virus at different contact times (30 s, 60 s, 90 s, 120 s, 180 s, and 300 s). Antiviral activity of a gaseous mixture containing O3 at 20 and 50 μg/mL was evaluated against the virus after 30 s and 60 s. Ozone displayed significant virucidal activity when used at all the tested concentrations whilst significant antiviral activity was observed using ozone at 50 μg/mL. The gaseous mixture, tested in the present study, showed virucidal and antiviral activity against CpHV-1 in a dose- and time contact-dependent fashion. Ozone therapy could be evaluated in vivo for the treatment of CpHV-1-induced genital lesions in goats using topical applications.

Norovirus (NoV) is regarded as a common cause of acute gastrointestinal illness worldwide in all age groups, with substantial morbidity across health care and community settings. The lack of in vitro cell culture systems for human NoV has prompted the use of cultivatable caliciviruses (such as feline calicivirus, FCV, or murine NoV) as surrogates for in vitro evaluation of antivirals. Essential oils (EOs) may represent a valid tool to counteract viral infections, particularly as food preservatives. In the present study, the virucidal efficacy of lemon EO (LEO) against FCV was assessed in vitro. The gas chromatography hyphenated with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) technique was used to reveal the chemical composition of LEO. The following small molecules were detected as major components of LEO: limonene (53%), β-pinene (14.5%), γ-terpinene (5.9%), citral (3.8%), α-pinene (2.4%), and β-thujene (1.94%). LEO at 302.0 μg/mL, exceeding the maximum non cytotoxic limit, significantly decreased viral titre of 0.75 log10 TCID50/50 μL after 8 h. Moreover, virucidal activity was tested using LEO at 3020.00 μg/mL, determining a reduction of viral titre as high as 1.25 log10 TCID50/50 μL after 8 h of time contact. These results open up perspectives for the development of alternative prophylaxis approaches for the control of NoV infection.

The indiscriminate use of antimicrobials in poultry farms is linked to the increase in multi-resistant bacteria. Accordingly, based on the antimicrobial properties of Thyme Essential Oil (TEO), the present study evaluated the effects of TEO on the reduction of common microbial contaminants and Salmonella on poultry litter. A litter bulk sample was collected in a broiler farm and qualitative/quantitative investigations identified Escherichia coli and Mammaliicoccus lentus. The experimental contamination with Salmonella Derby wild strain was also performed. All pathogens showed phenotypic and genotypic resistance to different classes of antibiotics. The litter, split in different units, was treated with aqueous solutions of TEO at different concentrations (5% to 1.25%), demonstrating its effectiveness in reducing the total number of bacteria. The strongest antibacterial action was observed at the lowest concentration against Enterobacteriaceae, with a growth reduction compared to the positive control of 73.3% and 77.8% against E. coli and Salmonella Derby, respectively, while towards M. lentus the reduction was 50%. Our data confirm the antimicrobial activity of TEO and suggest its possible application for the treatment of poultry litter as an effective and natural approach for the prevention of diseases caused by the most common bacteria that colonize poultry farms, counteracting the onset of antibiotic resistance.