We investigate factors that determine road users' experiences with congestion based on a questionnaire survey conducted in the Oslo area of Norway. The rationale is to add more knowledge on factors that determine users' experience with congestion. Furthermore, we use a succinct econometric framework to assess the data. We find that the following factors influence road users' experiences with congestion: (1) whether they experienced congestion on their reference trip; (2) how often road users undertake trips during congestion; (3) the extent to which road users had potential alternative modes of transport other than car use; (4) education; (5) whether respondents had time commitments at their destinations; (6) travel time used during their journey; (7) how often they experience congestion as a problem during their journey; (8) when participants begin to experience discomfort with congestion; and (9) age. The direction of these factors' impact on experience is explained in the results section. For example, those who did not experience congestion on their previous trip are 26 percentage points more likely to report a negative experience with congestion than those who did. The results provide new insight into the factors that determine road users' experience with congestion. Finally, we warn that one should not be indifferent regarding the logit models used, as the results can be quite different.

The well-known Oslo cordon toll ring was transformed into a congestion charging scheme in 2017. The transformation implied higher toll rates during rush hours and lower rates during nonrush hours, and battery-driven electric vehicles (BEVs) were exempted from paying tolls as a means of enhancing the uptake of BEVs. This paper studies road users' attitudes towards the transformation that took place. The rationale is that studies examining road users' attitudes towards such transformations are lacking in the transportation literature. We use the results of a survey conducted a month after the transformation, and a question was added regarding users' attitudes towards the transformation. The dataset consists of 2005 responses. We use both descriptive statistics and logitbased regression analyses to assess the data. The results reveal that the average road user has a negative attitude towards the transformation, most likely because the transformation increased the travel cost for the average user. Our results add value to the literature and for researchers and policymakers who may want to consider similar transformations, and groups of users who need to be convinced of the usefulness of congestion charging are identified.

This paper examines participant attitudes towards battery electric vehicle (BEV) incentives. Our case study was conducted in the greater Oslo area. Oslo has ranked as the world capital of BEV usage since 2014. The Norwegian government currently leads the comprehensive use of BEV incentives to decarbonize road transport. The data set is from a questionnaire survey conducted annually between 2014 and 2020. A total of 6363 individuals divided equally into annual random samples were asked to express their attitudes towards the different BEV incentives in place in each year. Participants were aged 18 or older and were living in the larger Oslo area. Professional data collection companies used computer-assisted telephone interviews to conduct the survey. Generalized structural equation modelling (GSEM) was used to analyse the data. The sample was 49% women and 51% men, with a mean age of 51 years, ranging from 18 to 99 years old. People in greater Oslo increasingly disagree each year with beneficial BEV incentives such as toll exemptions, access to bus lanes without passengers and free public parking. However, internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) users are more likely to disagree than BEV users. The results provide new knowledge about attitudes towards BEV incentives from a longitudinal perspective.

Purpose Norway has been named the "capital" of Electric Vehicles (EVs) because the purchase and use of EVs in Norway has increased tremendously over the last few years. Currently, the fleet of EVs in Norway is the largest per capita in the world. From a transportation research perspective, the questions immediately asked are (i) what economic incentives make the purchase and use of EVs in Norway so attractive to road users; (ii) do these incentives have any adverse effects and, if so, how large are they; and (iii) how does the marginal external cost of EVs compare to that of conventional vehicles.Method We explore the above questions using available data, the literature and personal observations while relating to the city of Oslo as a case study.Results We find that the tremendous increase in the use of EVs is the result of multiple economic incentives, such as exemption from toll charges, exemption from purchase duties and permission to use transit lanes that induce road users to purchase and use EVs. The increase in EVs has led to a reduction in CO2 emissions. However, some of the EV incentives have adverse effects, the most serious of which is the exemption from toll charges, which has led to a sizable loss of toll revenue. We find that the marginal external cost of EVs' road use is approximately the same as that for a conventional vehicle.Conclusions The incentives for EVs should consider the adverse effects and how electricity is produced; the Norwegian approach should not be followed by other countries without due consideration of these factors.

The current Oslo toll ring system was implemented in 1990 to generate funds for road investments in the larger Oslo area. Currently, about 60% of the toll income is being used for investments and maintenance of public transport. The use of a large share of toll income on public transport may be seen as strategy to induce people to use public transport. However, congestion in peak periods is still a major problem in the Oslo area and has attracted public attention. Congestion imposes a major social cost. All else equal, congested traffic produces more air pollution, increases travel time and consumes more energy than smooth traffic flow. Given that the Oslo toll ring with flat rates is already in place, planners have started to address the question of whether the system in place can be converted to a marginal cost-based scheme to reduce the prevalent congestion. In this paper we examine the benefits of converting the already existing Oslo toll ring with flat rates to a congestion-based charging scheme. To do so, we first develop a theoretical model along the lines of Arnott et al.(1993). The theoretical model is then combined with a more practical and empirical model for estimating the optimal tolls and assessing the effects of a congestion scheme. The findings show that transforming the current toll ring system into a congestion-pricing system, where peak traffic is charged a higher toll than off-peak traffic, holds great potential for easing traffic congestion and improving the environment. Further, it will improve the efficiency of both public and private transport while at the same time it can raise more revenues compared to the current situation. Thus, such a move will not be in conflict with the current road financing toll. These results have direct policy implications in that they should appeal to decision-makers and hence are relevant for the marketing of congestion pricing.

The use of Electric Vehicles (EVs) has exploded in Norway where Oslo is now the capital city of EVs. From a transportation research point of view, there are two questions that lend themselves from the observations above: (1) are the Norwegian car user more environmentally conscious than others in the western world and/or, (2) are there economic incentives in place that encourage the use of EVs in Norway more than in other countries? In this paper the authors examine the two questions posed above in the case of Oslo where a toll ring has been in place since 1989 and where 60% of funds collected are used to improve the road network while the rest are used to improve both public transportation and cycling. In this paper the authors also estimate the loss of income to the government due to the exemption of tolls. Further the authors examine a first-best scenario where EVs pay the external cost of their road use versus those of conventional vehicles. The authors find that it is due to economic incentives rather than Norwegians being more environmentally conscious.

The objective is to compare greenhouse gas emissions from a four-lane road with those from a two-lane road in a life-cycle perspective. E6 Biri-Vingrom, 18km (near Lillehammer, Norway) is used as an example. The calculations are performed for two options: two lanes with 4km overtaking fields and four lanes. Calculations for greenhouse gas emissions will be part of a cost-benefit analysis.