Use of hot water has become extensive, especially in bitumen extraction from oil sands and in the production of heavy oil. The hot water is often under pressure and is 80–90°C, which is well above temperatures that result in immediate, potentially severe burn injuries. The ASTM F2701-08 apparatus consists of a funnel through which hot liquid is hand-poured to produce a 10 s exposure. Two 40 mm diameter copper calorimeters, mounted in an insulating sheet are positioned beneath the funnel outlet and are intended to measure the energy transfer through the fabric from the hot liquid. For this research, changes were made to the apparatus and procedures to more closely simulate low pressure hot water streams found in the oil industry and to improve reproducibility. The funnel producing the liquid splash was replaced with a small pipe directly fed by a circulating hot water bath via a small pump, through a hose and valve system, allowing for consistent application of a given quantity of water at a consistent temperature and flow rate. Water temperature, flow rate, and pressure can be altered as desired. A series of fabrics varying systematically on several parameters were tested with the modified equipment. Resulting heat transfer data suggest the system differentiates well among both semi-permeable and impermeable fabrics. Specifications for hot water protection are proposed.

Setting up a manikin/burner system to evaluate FR clothing requires that the energy transfer to the surface of an instrumented manikin be measured and adjusted to meet the requirements of the test method being used (ASTM F1930 or ISO 11056). ISO 11056 makes provision for the use of an instrumented cylinder to initially set the physical position of burners before using the manikin. The idea behind the provision is that because of the symmetry of the cylinder the heat flux should be uniform over the surface enabling rapid initial setting of burner positions, fuel pressures, flow controls etc. This work experimentally evaluated the differences in heat flux that would be obtained if conditions were set with a cylinder and the cylinder then replaced with the manikin for. The work was undertaken as background to find out whether this procedure would be a useful addition to ASTM F1930. The study concluded that the additional cost/time associated with using a cylinder did not result in better exposure conditions on a manikin form primarily due to the non-uniform shape of the manikin.

Industrial steam presents a worker hazard that has not been addressed within the protective clothing industry to date, and traditional flame-resistant materials provide little protection against this hazard. A test method and associated equipment has been developed and evaluated against field measurements to ensure that the method is able to differentiate among materials and is representative of the actual hazard. A two-level system of ranking textiles has been suggested: Level 1-fabrics that would be used for everyday use, and Level 2-fabrics that could be used for higher risk operations. The two-level system proposed is based on energy transmitted through the material and time to the onset of a second-degree thermal injury

The results of field testing four induced-draft residential furnaces at three different altitudes are presented. The test altitudes were, sea level, 2250 ft(685 m), and 6700 ft(2040 m). The furnaces were tested for safe operation under a variety Of derating schemes, steady state efficiency, and nitric oxide emissions while operating on both natural gas and propane gas. The test protocols used were from ANSI Z21.47/CSA 2.3 American National Standard/CSA Standard for Gas-Fired Central Furnaces (ANSI 2001). In this Part I, the results from the safe operation and derating schemes are presented, while a companion paper Part II, contains the results from the steady state efficiency and nitric oxide measurements.The results showed that the furnaces could be fired at all altitudes using the sea level settings of orifice size and manifold pressure without exceeding the 400 ppm carbon monoxide air free (CO-AF) limit in the flue gas. This is due to the venturi-style burners that naturally reduce the fuel flow rate by about 1.8% per 1000 ft (305 m) increase in altitude. Over firing resulted in the flue gas CO-AF concentration exceeding 400 ppm in only one test.The measured CO and calculated CO-AF concentrations showed the same general trends with increasing altitude for both test fuels. No effects of altitude on the performance of the ignition systems (hot surface igniters) were observed.

The results of field testing four induced draft residential furnaces at three different altitudes to evaluate the effect on steady state efficiency and nitric oxide emissions of operating at altitudes above sea level are presented. The test altitudes were sea level, 2250 ft (685 m), and 6700 ft (2040 m). Both natural gas and propane gas were used as test fuels. The test protocols used were from ANSI Z21.47-2001/CSA 2.3-2001 American National Standard/CSA Standard for Gas-Fired Central Furnaces (ANSI 2001). A companion paper (Fleck et al. n.d.) discusses results from studies on safe operation limits and derating schemes at the three test altitudes.The results showed a trend of increasing efficiency with altitude on both fuels, that propane gas produced the highest efficiencies, and that the highest flue gas nitric oxide (NO) concentration levels (mass of NO per unit of useful heat output) were found at 2250 ft (685 m), while the lowest levels occurred at 6700 ft (2040 m. The high-efficiency furnaces produced lower NO concentration levels than the mid-efficiency furnaces at all altitudes.

A study of bench top tests for thermal protective fabrics was undertaken to answer questions about the interpretation of data from these tests, and to evaluate suggested modifications to existing tests. Fixed duration tests using either skin simulant or copper disk heat flux sensors may be a useful alternative to existing bench top tests. However, more work is required before fixed duration tests can be implemented. While predictions of times to third degree bums for bench top test require the use of the Henriques' burn integral, the Stoll second degree burn criterion was found to predict times to second degree burns reasonably close to predictions made using Henriques' burn integral for many bench top test exposures.It was also found that the heat fluxes used in bench top tests may not be indicative of those in actual flash fires. Current tests which utilize a planar geometry were also found to adequately represent the heat transfer in the more complex geometry of the human body during these exposures.

Research into the impacts of climate change on lakes requires novel experimental methods that enable realistic tests of the effects of increased water temperatures on communities. This article describes the design of a heating system that has been used in situ to study the effects of an increase in lake surface temperatures on littoral communities. Water within four 700‐L enclosures was heated using a propane‐fuelled heat exchange system. Hot water was circulated through a network of heat exchange pipes nested in the bottom of enclosures and temperature within the enclosures was controlled electronically by regulating water flow through a series of valves. The system performed well, with temperatures within warmed enclosures paralleling diurnal fluctuations within control enclosures. The average temperature difference between warm and control enclosures of 4.5°C was close to our target temperature difference of 5°C. Strengths of the experimental system are discussed and potential improvements, including improved heat retention and a design adjustment to facilitate repair in the event of lightning damage are noted. The system is adaptable to larger and smaller volumes, different temperature regimes, and can be adapted for use in pelagic systems.

Fuel-burning appliances require air for combustion. When the appliances are located in enclosed spaces, provision must be made for supplying the required amounts of air. Depending on the specifics of the appliances and the enclosure, additional air may be required for draft hood dilution and space conditioning. An enclosed space can be a mechanical room in a building, a furnace room in a residence or the entire floor of a building ifa separate enclosure is not used to isolate the combustion appliance(s). An example of the latter is an unenclosed warm-air furnace in abasement of a residence.

Flightsuit designs incorporating variation on four parameters of interest (one-piece vs two-piece, loose vs close fit, closure system, and seam type) were developed following a functional design process and using CAD procedures (Part I). Prototype garments were produced for each of three phases of instrumented mannequin testing of thermal protection. Fabrics used in the prototypes included a meta-aramid/carbon blend (phases 1 and 3), an FR viscose/meta-aramid blend (phases 2 and 3), and a meta-aramidlpbi blend (phase 3). Style, fit, and closure system each had small but significant effects on the thermal protection provided by flightsuits. Loose-fitting garments provided better protection than close-fitting ones if the fullness was controlled by appropriate closures. Close-fitting cuff closures on sleeves and pant legs were more effective than were zipper closures. A stand-up collar offered better protection for the neck than a convertible collar. Two-piece flightsuits provided somewhat greater protection than one-piece coveralls, mainly due to the effect of garment layering below the waist. These effects were detected when flightsuits were tested without underwear. The style effect was masked when the garments were worn over long thermal protective underwear, demonstrating the effectiveness of garment layering. Thus, for best assurance of thermal protection, flight personnel should wear long protective underwear under flightsuits at all times; in climates where this underwear might not be suitable, it is recommended that one-and two-piece flightsuits be made in a more loosely-fitting style and incorporate a stand-up collar and adjustable cuffs on sleeves and pant legs.

An experimental study dealing with the passive supply of combustion air for appliances located in cold climates was carried out over two heating seasons. During that period more than 8,000 hours of hourly air exchange rate data were gathered in two test buildings. The study examined the performance of vents sized and located in accordance with the Uniform Mechanical Code. The study also examined the Erse of a mechanical system for the supply of combustion air.Passive combustion air supply systems sized according to codes can, on average supply sufficient outdoor air to meet the combustion and space-conditioning requirements. Air-flows of nearly 300% of the design rates were observed under environmental extremes - low temperature and high wind speed. Flow rate reduction through a reduction in vent cross-sectional area was experimentally evaluated. There was a small reduction in average flow rate but the extremes in flow remained comparable to the full-sized vents, indicating that the problems of oversupply of air during environmental extremes cannot be solved through a reduction in vent area without the danger of inadequate supply when conditions are mild.Mechanical supply of the combustion air using a fan tvas observed to always supply adequate amounts of air. Proper design of the fan system will ensure that the room is not pressurized by the system but that adequate air will be supplied. The use of a mechanical system for the supply of combustion air means that space-conditioning and combustion air must be necessarily separated.

Attic turbine ventilators are increasingly used in residential applications to remove heated air from attic spaces during summer periods and, in turn, to reduce the energy transfer between attics and living spaces. Concerns have been expressed as to whether increasing attic ventilation rates may produce problems of interior condensation at wall-ceiling intersections during periods of low ambient temperature. In many instances, purchasers tend to expect dramatic improvements in the comfort level of living spaces when an attic turbine ventilator has been installed. Field measurements of attic ventilation rates made in a house with and without a turbine ventilator indicated that the enhancement provided by the ventilator was a function of wind direction, with the greatest benefit in the direction with the most upwind shelter. Ventilation enhancement ranged between 5% and 50%. Averaged over all wind directions and seasons, the turbine ventilator increased ventilation rates by approximately 15 % from 5. 3 to 6.1 air changes per hour (ach). Operation of an attic turbine ventilator was found to reduce attic air temperatures in the test house by a small amount, less than 1°F. Given the insulation levels in the ceiling of the test house, a temperature change of this magnitude is unlikely to influence occupant comfort.

A study of heating energy requirements in a northern climate, utilizing six uninhabited test modules has shown that significant energy savings can be realized through relatively simple measures. Basement wall insulation, RSI 1.76, applied externally lead to energy savings of 65% over that of an uninsulated basement wall when applied full height. The retrofit of the ceiling and above grade walls of a test module has lead to reductions in space heat requirement similar to that calculated using steady state methods. The addition of a small amount of south facing glazing to a masonry test module resulted in little or no reduction in total energy required over a heating season.