Roost selection and diet are fundamentally important to bats and can vary geographically and with habitat. The greater broad-nosed bat (Scoteanax rueppellii) is infrequently captured and poorly known, meaning appropriate conservation actions are difficult to determine. To assess variation across different habitats, we collected faecal samples for dietary analysis and radio-tracked individuals to identify roost trees at four different sites across New South Wales, Australia. Analysis of droppings verified beetles as the main prey in each study area except one dominated by mangroves, and confirmed for the first time carnivory in wild-caught individuals from the presence of hair from other bat species in its droppings. Very large, hollow trees were used as maternity roosts, being typically larger than neighbouring trees. Roosting habitat varied from wet sclerophyll forest in gullies to old-growth mangroves, and tree species used as roosts also varied. Colony size at maternity roosts was often 50–100 bats and fidelity to the maternity roost varied, with some being switched almost daily and others occupied for at least several days. One maternity roost was re-used 2 years later. Both the importance of beetles in the diet and roosts located in more productive landscapes suggest coastal plains and foothills may represent key habitat.

Habitat degradation leads to homogenization of biological communities, often due to the dominance of generalist species over specialists. Yet data as to how life history attributes of specialists vary with such perturbations remain sparse. We compared long-term population dynamics of a specialist trawling bat, the large-footed myotis (Myotis macropus), between two forested catchments. One forest stream was nutrient-enriched from dairy farming in its headwaters and a portion of its surrounding catchment was harvested for timber during the study, while the other was located in primarily undisturbed forest. We caught and banded bats annually at their roosts over 14 years and banded 529 individuals with a 45% recapture rate. The maximum time to recapture was nine years and there was no evidence for transiency in our populations. Mark-recapture analyses allowed for investigation of the dependence of survival on time, sex, and age at marking. Our study spanned extreme El Nino and La Nina weather events, but we found little variation in survival, although recruitment was lower during drought. Mean minimum winter temperature (positive) and rainfall (positive) had weak influences on survival. Survival of adults (similar to 0.70) and population size of adult females was similar between the two sites, suggesting that neither timber harvesting with retained riparian buffers nor eutrophication from farming influenced survival. Survival of adult males and females was similar, but survival of juveniles was less than half that of adults, probably due to a combination of mortality and dispersal. Survival was three times lower immediately after one of the timber bridges used as a roost fully collapsed. Specializing on aquatic habitats buffered M. macropus from most extreme weather, but there was also evidence for possible mortality and recovery after an intense rainfall and flooding event immediately prior to the study. More frequent intense rainfall predicted with global warming may reduce the species' resilience over time.

Fire regimes have a major influence on biodiversity in many ecosystems around the globe, yet our understanding of the longer-term response of fauna is typically poor. We sampled bats with ultrasonic detectors in three different years in dry sclerophyll forests of south-eastern Australia in a long-term, management-scale experiment. Frequent low-intensity burning (every 2 or 4 years plus unburnt) and logging (with 33% retention of the original unlogged tree basal area) were manipulated to assess their effects on bats. We found that both the fire regime and regrowth after logging influenced the local bat community. The routine burning treatment (burnt every 4 years) in unlogged forest was consistently related to higher total bat activity (2-3 times) and species richness when compared to unburnt controls and logging treatments. Foraging activity was more variable, but it was typically lowest in Unlogged Unburnt Controls. These patterns were evident at both the detector site scale and the block scale and were probably due to a reduction in understorey stem density with burning, especially in unlogged forest. Bat activity was significantly lower across the entire study area (including controls) in 1 year, when sampling occurred within 6 months of burning. When pooled across burning treatments, unlogged forest supported higher bat activity (1.5 times) and species richness than logged forest (12- to 17-year-old regrowth), again most likely because of a negative association with high stem density in regrowth after logging. We conclude that low-intensity burning had positive benefits for echolocating bats, most notably in unlogged forest. However, careful planning is required to generate heterogeneous vegetation patterns that are likely to be most suitable for a range of taxa.

Long-term data are needed to explore the interaction of weather extremes with habitat alteration; in particular, can 'refugia' buffer population dynamics against climate change and are they robust to disturbances such as timber harvesting. Because forest bats are good indicators of ecosystem health, we used 14 years (1999-2012) of mark-recapture data from a suite of small tree-hollow roosting bats to estimate survival, abundance and body condition in harvested and unharvested forest and over extreme El Niño and La Niña weather events in southeastern Australia. Trapping was replicated within an experimental forest, located in a climate refuge, with different timber harvesting treatments. We trapped foraging bats and banded 3043 with a 32% retrap rate. Mark-recapture analyses allowed for dependence of survival on time, species, sex, logging treatment and for transients. A large portion of the population remained resident, with a maximum time to recapture of nine years. The effect of logging history (unlogged vs 16-30 years post-logging regrowth) on apparent survival was minor and species specific, with no detectable effect for two species, a positive effect for one and negative for the other. There was no effect of logging history on abundance or body condition for any of these species. Apparent survival of residents was not strongly influenced by weather variation (except for the smallest species), unlike previous studies outside of refugia. Despite annual variation in abundance and body condition across the 14 years of the study, no relationship with extreme weather was evident. The location of our study area in a climate refuge potentially buffered bat population dynamics from extreme weather. These results support the value of climate refugia in mitigating climate change impacts, though the lack of an external control highlights the need for further studies on the functioning of climate refugia. Relatively stable population dynamics were not compromised by timber harvesting, suggesting ecologically sustainable harvesting may be compatible with climate refugia.

Wildfires are becoming increasingly severe and common in many parts of the world, yet their effects on certain taxa remain poorly studied. In November 2006, a major wildfire occurred in the Pilliga forests of north-west New South Wales, Australia. This fire was severe and extensive, burning more than 120000ha. Prior to the fire, we conducted a study in the affected area assessing bat activity in relation to flyway size and riparian zones, allowing us to opportunistically compare before - and - after effects of wildfire on bats in burnt and unburnt areas. We assessed how bat activity and bat composition changed from 1 year pre-fire to 1 year post-fire and 4years post-fire, accounting for the effects of flyway size. A BACI analysis showed that there was an effect of time (year) on bat activity, with activity markedly reduced in both burnt and unburnt sites in the year post- fire, before recovering 4-years post-fire to levels that approached pre-burn activity. However, there was no treatment or interaction effect, indicating fire alone did not affect bat activity at our sites. Activity was 50% lower at supplementary sites more remote (similar to 5km) from the fire edge. Multi-dimensional scaling and permanova described a strong effect of year but no evidence of fire or stream size-mediated effects on species composition. The drop in activity post-fire coincided with a period of drought that subsequently broke in the year prior to our survey 4years post-fire. Some species-specific responses to the fire were evident and depended on the proximity to unburnt forest. We suggest the potential for landscape re-assortment, whereby some species may move from the unburnt landscape into the burnt landscape, possibly in response to a resource pulse of insects. A landscape pattern of movement could obscure the detection of direct fire effects on mobile bats. We suggest fire extent, proximity to unburnt vegetation and severity are key considerations when interpreting the response of bats to wildfire.

Large-scale plantations established for timber production can dramatically transform landscapes, however little is known about the response of more cryptic components of biodiversity. We report on trends in mammals and nocturnal birds during a 17 year longitudinal study on three large-scale plantations of locally indigenous eucalypts in northern New South Wales, Australia. The study began in a farmland mosaic and has continued to track occupancy after the establishment of eucalypt plantations within the paddock areas. Surveys were undertaken at focal trees located in different classes of remnant vegetation that became embedded within the plantations as well as in the plantation matrix itself. Reference sites were also sampled in adjacent blocks of forest. We recorded nine species of arboreal mammals and eight species of nocturnal birds during focal tree watches, while camera and Elliott traps recorded 19 ground-dwelling taxa. Eleven of these species are listed as threatened. The majority of species were present, but uncommon, at the start of our study in the cleared farmland-remnant vegetation mosaic. Multi-season, multi-scale occupancy analyses revealed most species were stable over time and, among mammals, a large temporal increase was most notable for common brushtail possum Trichosurus vulpecula. A potential decline was only observed for eastern chestnut mouse Pseudomys gracilicaudatus, a trend also evident in other small mammals. Among nocturnal birds, both southern boobook Ninox boobook and Australian owlet nightjar Aegotheles cristatus increased in occupancy over time. Increasers tended to be widespread species with generalist attributes, while stable or decreasing species were more likely to be specialists. Few arboreal mammals or nocturnal birds were recorded in the plantation matrix itself, though some ground mammals (e.g., rufous bettong Aepyprymnus rufescens) had higher occupancy rates in plantation. Rather, most species were associated with remnant vegetation and old growth elements within plantations and these likely function as a refuge for fauna (potentially during plantation harvest), provide specialised resources such as tree hollows and facilitate the colonisation of plantations. While few negative effects due to change in land-use to plantation were recorded, limited increase in occupancy for most species contrasts with overall positive trends reported previously for diurnal bird species. Low structural complexity and tree species diversity within plantations are likely to limit the number of winners. In the context of a timber plantation, additional management to enhance recovery would best be directed to areas excluded from future harvesting, suchasenvironmentalplantings in degraded riparian zones and limiting livestock grazing. The ecosystem implications of increasing populations of generalists such as T. vulpecula remain unclear. (C) 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

We describe microhabitat use and response to disturbance by the eastern pygmy-possum (Cercartetus nanus) in heathy dry sclerophyll forest using spool-and-line-tracking. We compared unlogged forest with forest regenerating four years after selective logging. Structural and floristic attributes were scored along spool lines and compared with a random line for each possum. We found that possums (n = 23) selected areas based on both structural and floristic attributes. Possums selected dense understorey, especially that comprising flowering hairpin banksia (Banksia spinulosa) and Gymea lily (Doryanthes excelsa). Fallen logs were not selected by nocturnally active possums. Spool lines in regrowth forest had less eucalypt cover and more understorey cover (e.g. D. excelsa and B. spinulosa) than unlogged forest. Conversely, cover of Banksia serrata was less in regrowth than unlogged forest. Spool lines were commonly found both at ground level (mean = 52–57% of lengths) and above the ground (43–48% of lengths). There was no difference in the mean spool height between the logging treatments (regrowth: 0.47 ± 0.14 m; unlogged: 0.49 ± 0.10 m; ± s.e.). Overall, our results suggest that the dense, flowering understorey that regenerates after selective logging is suitable for use and is the primary attribute selected by active pygmy-possums.

Context Studies of habitat suitability in disturbed landscapes based on species traits can improve predictions about how alternative management strategies are likely to affect threatened species. Aims We studied the south-eastern long-eared bat (Nyctophilus corbeni), which represents a group of bats prone to extinction due to attributes that adapt it to flight within cluttered forest vegetation, typically making them forest-dependent. To support decisions about management of the species in timber production forests, we investigated roost selection and characterised diet in a mosaic of disturbance histories in the Pilliga forests of north-western New South Wales. Methods We caught 54 N. corbeni, radio-tracked 39 individuals and located 41 unique maternity roost trees. Attributes of roost trees were compared with the local neighbourhood and the landscape mosaic of habitat types and logging treatments (recently logged, recently thinned and old regrowth). Preliminary observations were collected on foraging movements. Diet was characterised for maternity and non-maternity seasons using faecal DNA techniques. Key Results Small maternity colonies (<10 bats) were found in hollows and fissures often in exposed locations of trees with a small diameter (means range 23–39 cm) that were usually dead (82.5% of roosts). Buloke Allocasuarina luehmannii was most commonly used for roosting (49%), yet has been overlooked previously as a source of hollows for fauna. Landscape-scale habitat use was subtle: bats avoided roosting in commercially thinned stands and selected old regrowth. Logged and mechanically thinned stands were used in proportion to availability. Nyctophilus corbeni consumed a diverse range of prey in spring (November) and autumn (March), dominated by moths. Conclusions Areas of high stem density, especially those containing dead trees, provide key roosting habitat for N. corbeni and this is likely to be a significant factor explaining the species rarity. Implications Roosting ecology as well as foraging ecology contributes to a species’ sensitivity to disturbance consistent with trait-based predictions. Heterogeneity in the landscape should be maintained when the habitat of N. corbeni is manipulated (e.g. thinned) by retaining a diversity of stem densities, including dense patches (especially with dead A. luehmannii).

Landscape-scale monitoring is a key approach for assessing changes in indicators. However, great care needs to be taken to collect rigorous data and avoid wasting resources in long-term programmes. Insect-eating bats are diverse, functionally important and are often proposed as indicator species of environmental health. We used acoustic (ultrasonic) data from pilot bat surveys undertaken in forests and woodlands to optimize sampling effort to produce precise estimates of bat activity and occupancy. We also carried out simulations to evaluate the statistical power of different sampling designs to detect changes in activity and occupancy levels of individual bat species. There was little gain in precision for estimates of bat activity by sampling beyond five to six detector nights. To ensure spatial heterogeneity was sampled around a monitoring point, three detectors for two nights or two detectors for three nights would be required. This level of sampling was also sufficient to be 90% certain of recording occupancy for 11 of 12 taxa. Power simulations revealed that a sampling design using two detectors per monitoring point for two nights could detect a 30% decline within 10 years with 90% power for all species, except the white-striped free tail bat (Tadarida australis), using either changes in activity levels or occupancy. However, fewer years were required when using occupancy. Setting detectors either on-flyways or off-flyways contributed only minor differences to the time taken to reach 90% power for both occupancy and activity levels, though sampling both locations has major implications for interpreting trends in bats. We suggest that bat activity levels are more sensitive for detecting change than occupancy because one pass or 1000 passes can be recorded per night by an acoustic detector, and this is not differentiated by occupancy. Bats can be monitored cost-effectively and should be included in monitoring programmes.

Large-scale plantations established for timber production or for carbon sequestration can dramatically transform landscapes, however little is known about the response of biodiversity. We report on trends in bird diversity during a 12 year longitudinal study on three large-scale plantations of locally indigenous eucalypts in northern New South Wales, Australia. The study began in a farmland mosaic and has continued to follow bird occupancy rates after the establishment of eucalypt plantations within the paddock areas. Bird surveys were undertaken at focal trees located in different classes of remnant vegetation, which became embedded within the plantations as well as in the plantation matrix itself. Reference sites were also located in adjacent blocks of forest. We found that species richness increased over time in the plantation matrix, as well as remnant vegetation embedded within the plantation (isolated trees, tree patches and remnants, but not riparian locations). When birds were classified as forest-dependent, forest-associated or mosaic generalist, the species richness of forest-associated birds increased and mosaic generalists decreased over time at selected remnant categories. Richness of forest-dependent birds did not change over time. After plantation establishment, bird composition at remnant locations gradually shifted towards that of forest, although all locations remained distinct from forest even after 11 years of plantation growth. The response of 36 individual species was assessed with 47% percent of species increasing over the 11 years and 31% of species declining. Notably the noisy miner, a hyper-aggressive species, decreased over time. We suggest a reduction in the occurrence of this species could be an important contributor to the increase in the diversity of smaller bird species. These include species of regional concern, such as the eastern yellow robin and the rufous whistler, which increased over the study period. Our results suggest that large-scale plantations of locally indigenous species contribute to ecological restoration of cleared landscapes. However, the plantation matrix after 11 years provided less suitable habitat than nearby forest as it supported fewer species, especially for birds that are characteristic of forest. Retention of remnant vegetation at the time of plantation establishment, including large isolated paddock trees, contributed considerably to the biodiversity present in the plantations and is likely to provide key refuge areas during any subsequent harvesting. Continued collection of longitudinal data are needed to describe changes through the full plantation rotation and harvest, while the extent to which other taxa respond to eucalypt plantation establishment also requires documentation. Crown Copyright (C) 2014 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

We report high rates of predation within a population of eastern pygmy-possum (Cercartetus nanus) near Sydney, observed during a study of the impacts of logging on the species. Predation by reptiles was observed on six of 61 radio-tracked pygmy-possums, while two were suspected of being taken by raptors. We further investigated predation by sooty owls (Tyto tenebricosa) by identifying remains in pellets. Pygmy-possums comprised 15% of the 126 dietary items identified. Predation occurred at both logged and unlogged sites in our study. We suggest that documented high rates of predation in our study could make the species vulnerable to altered predation regimes, such as influxes of feral predators, and highlight the need for a better understanding of any influence of logging on predator activity.

Context Selective logging of native forests creates a mosaic of disturbance histories; however, little is known about how different taxa respond to such a mosaic. Aims We followed adaptive-management principles to test logging and burning impacts on eastern pygmy possums, Cercartetus nanus (Geoffroy and Desmarest, 1817), by undertaking a large-scale field experiment that coincided with harvesting. We predicted that home range would increase after logging because of a reduction in resources (food and/or dens) and because hollows suitable for denning would decrease, resulting in greater use of unlogged patches and alternate dens. Methods We radio-tracked C. nanus in a before-and-after logging experiment to investigate home range, habitat selection and den use. We tracked 50 possums, some individuals for a maximum of 8 months, within control, recently logged and regrowth (5 years since logging) sites. Key results Home ranges were variable (0.04–19.5 ha), with males having significantly larger home ranges. We were unable to detect a difference in home-range size between controls and the first year after logging and burning, or regrowth 5 years after logging. Home ranges comprised a mosaic of disturbed and undisturbed areas, and possums did not avoid logged habitat in their home ranges, indicating that logging did not significantly influence habitat selection. We suggest that possums were not sensitive to selective logging and burning because nectar-producing plants are adapted to fire disturbance and because a variety of den sites were used, most commonly in tree hollows and fallen logs, which were commonly left as logging residue. Indeed, possums frequently denned in logged patches, both recently after logging (63% of dens) and in regrowth 5 years after logging (76% of dens). Counts of fallen hollow logs at each site indicated that their density was not reduced by logging, with regrowth sites having the greatest abundance of logs (260 ha–1). Conclusions The mosaic of disturbance created by selective logging operations did not negatively affect home range or den selection of C. nanus. Implications Ecologically sustainable logging practices that include a range of mitigation measures to protect biodiversity can be compatible with the management of threatened species. Assessment of the effectiveness of these methods often will rely on scientific research.

Riparian zones provide significant habitat for microbats. In forests subject to logging, buffers are normally retained along stream-beds to maintain water quality and protect riparian vegetation and its associated fauna. We sampled bat activity as part of a broader program to assess biodiversity and to provide a scientific basis for determining buffer widths around ephemeral streams in the Pilliga State forests of north-west New South Wales. Anabat detectors recorded bat activity over two consecutive nights in one season at each of three dry stream-bed sizes (small, medium and large), clustered into five different locations (replicates). Anabat detectors were placed at varying distances perpendicular from the dry, stream-bed centre of ephemeral streams (0 m, 50 m, 100 m, 200 m). To assess the influence on bat activity of the flyway per se versus the riparian zone, one cluster of sites represented a control or reference that comprised dirt roads of three equivalent widths. Over the course of the study 22,967 bat calls were recorded from 15 species. A multivariate analysis of species composition indicated that there was no distinct bat assemblage characteristic of the riparian zone. Overall, bat activity was not influenced by stream-bed size or the perpendicular distance from the stream-bed. However, there was a significant interaction between distance and stream-bed size, with large stream-beds supporting three times more activity over the channels than adjacent forest and woodland. Similarly for reference sites, there was more activity directly over the road than adjacent woodland. The response of individual species to flyways on the different-sized stream-beds varied generally in accordance with predictions based on their ecomorphology and echolocation call type. We conclude that large flyways have the most biological importance to the activity of a range of bat species and that, in conjunction with studies on other components of biodiversity, the riparian zone rarely extends beyond the stream-bed channel in the Pilliga forests.

Context Environmental benefits of timber plantations have been a major selling point for land use change from previously cleared farmland, but data concerning the response of biodiversity are scarce. Aims We investigated the use of young (4–11 years old) timber plantations by bats in comparison with other vegetation classes in a highly cleared and productive agricultural landscape in north-west New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Methods Initially, we recorded activity in paddocks before plantation establishment, and then four to six years after establishment. We compared activity within young eucalypt plantations with surrounding paddocks and remnant woodland. We also radio-tracked four different bat species to investigate how roosting and foraging was apportioned into different habitats. Key results The ultrasonic survey of bats found that the young plantations were typically used by 7–8 species and activity averaged 87 passes per night. Activity within plantations was similar to treeless paddocks, and approximately six times less than in small remnants. The very high activity levels and feeding buzzes in small remnants was significantly related to rich, basalt soil (which was used as a proxy for invertebrate biomass) on agricultural plains. Total activity and species richness was correlated positively with the number of remnant trees on the site, but neither plantation area nor shape influenced bat activity. Plantations were not used preferentially by radio-tracked bats at night compared with their availability in the local landscape (13–14% bat use, 17% available). No bat roosts were located within the plantations. Most bat roosts were in tree hollows, which were absent in the plantations. Decorticating bark was abundant in eucalypt plantations, but only Nyctophilus geoffroyi was observed beneath bark and only in remnant trees outside of plantations. Conclusions Young eucalypt plantations have limited value for bats, and this is comparable to previous studies on more environmentally focussed plantings. Implications The value of plantations for bats would be improved by retaining remnant trees, both in the surrounding landscape and within plantations. We also recommend varying tree densities to increase the diversity of animal species using plantations.

Nectar in tall forest canopies is a significant, but poorly quantified, resource for Australian fauna, as well as the European Honeybee Apis mellifera. We investigated the impact of logging on nectar production in the canopy of Grey Ironbark Eucalyptus paniculata (Smith) forests in southern Australia. Using cherry-pickers and cranes we measured nectar production in large and small trees in replicate sites in each of recently logged, young regrowth and old regrowth forest over three consecutive years (2004?2006). We focused on over-night nectar production, although nectar was produced during both the day and night. Logging history and tree size, when considered individually, had no significant effect on nectar production per flower, although the two factors showed a significant interaction. However, these differences were relatively minor in comparison to the negative relationship with drought. Little nectar was produced per flower under any logging history in drought. During good conditions nectar production varied depending on logging history. When scaled up to the forest stand, logging history had a marked effect on nectar production with old regrowth forest producing seven times as much sugar per ha as recently logged forest. Young regrowth forest 15?20 years old produced nectar quantities intermediate between that of recently logged forest and regrowth forest. At the compartment scale, current practices require the retention of old forest and the typical extent of this retention reduced the difference between old regrowth forest and recently logged forest to a factor of two times. Nectar production per flower was low and a limited resource in autumn 2004 and late-winter 2005, but was copious and in surplus in early summer 2006. Nectar standing crops at the flower scale appeared to be determined by an interaction between environmental conditions (drought) that negatively influenced nectar production and the feeding activity of flower visitors at the time, which itself is affected by prevailing temperatures and nectar attributes, such as sugar concentration and regional nectar availability. We suggest that management actions should focus on minimising nectar depletion in poor flowering years when the nectar resource is limiting.

To guide tree planting for restoration in southern Australia bats were sampled in revegetation from a wide variety of shapes, sizes, age and isolation. Young and old age-classes were sampled and these were stratified by size and shape. Where possible, revegetated categories were compared to remnant native vegetation with the same patch sizes, as well as very large remnants (>1000ha) and grazed paddocks. In total 120 sites were surveyed, with 10 replicates in each stratum. All bat species used revegetation sites, often with high activity (passes/night) levels. However, activity and species richness in revegetation was not greater than that recorded in the paddock matrix and activity in revegetation was less than a third of that recorded in remnants. Old, large plantings were an exception, recording twice the activity of paddocks, indicating that this was the only revegetation treatment that was used by bats more frequently than paddocks. The tree stand structure of old plantings was usually patchy, including the presence of gaps induced by drought and grazing associated mortality. Bats were generally insensitive to the effects of patch size and shape as well as the amount of remnant vegetation in the landscape. A negative relationship with understorey cover (including eucalypts if <5m high) was the most consistent predictor of total activity and species richness. The avoidance of clutter by many species of bats suggests that efforts to restore woodland communities should use lower stem densities. Improvements to revegetation programs to benefit bats are recommended and more broad-based studies that consider the varied requirements of a diverse fauna are encouraged.

Summary Bat activity was recorded in eight paired coupes of unlogged forest and 22-year-old regrowth forest, near Eden in southern New South Wales. Regrowth coupes had been clearfelled in 1976, with no retention of habitat trees or riparian buffers on minor forest streams. Ultrasonic detectors (Anabat) positioned off-flyways recorded an average of 87 passes in the first two hours after dark in unlogged coupes compared to 36 passes in regrowth coupes. This difference was probably due to considerable ‘clutter’ in the regrowth compared to the open forest structure of unlogged coupes. The overall rate of feeding (feeding buzzes/total passes) was very low in this study (3% in unlogged, 0.9% in logged). Low activity in regrowth was consistent for less maneuverable bat species, although those with a large body size were too rare to be tested. Despite low activity in regrowth, trapping rate on tracks was high, although 20% less than in unlogged coupes. Across the logged/unlogged mosaic, 11 bats were caught per harp-trap night. Roads and tracks provide linear edge habitat that may be an important ameliorative measure allowing a range of bat species to exploit habitat otherwise too cluttered for foraging. A significant bias towards capturing more females in unlogged coupes suggests maternity roosts were located in such areas and emphasizes the importance of retaining roost trees (now a standard practice in buffer zones and as habitat trees within logged areas) for bats.

Morning and dusk watches at live and dead trees were used to systematically investigate which species of vertebrates use paddock trees within farmland proposed for the establishment of Eucalyptus plantations in northern New South Wales. Tree-watches at 108 trees were stratified on farmland as isolated, in small patches, remnant vegetation and riparian strips plus in adjacent forest. Arboreal marsupials and bats emerged from hollows in 11% and 8% of trees, respectively. Only one colonial bat roost was observed, although the marsupials Trichosurus vulpecula and Petaurus breviceps were widespread in the landscape. Two threatened species of marsupials (Petaurus norfolcensis and Phascogale tapoatafa) were observed using paddock trees on flats or slopes outside of riparian strips. Among owls, only the Southern Boobook Ninox novaeseelandiae and Barn Owl Tyto alba were observed using tree hollows on farmland. For all hollow-dependent nocturnal fauna (marsupials, bats and owls), very large tree diameter best predicted occupation of a tree-hollow (especially if <800 m from the nearest forest). In addition to providing hollows, paddock trees were used for foraging. Morning surveys revealed 35 diurnal bird species on isolated trees, although most were generalists (e.g., Eastern Rosella Platycercus eximius, Noisy Miner Manorina melanocephala) that were also regular visitors to non-isolated trees in remnant vegetation. More forest-dependent and forest-associated bird species were recorded in forests and riparian strips than other tree categories, reinforcing the high conservation value of riparian strips in farmland. After dark, ultrasonic detectors recorded 21 species of bat (seven threatened species) flying in close proximity to paddock trees. Relatively high levels of activity were recorded at one study location for species rarely recorded in forests (e.g., Scoteanax rueppellii). Remnant Eucalyptus tereticornis and E. amplifolia were a significant source of blossom for nectarivores and they were also associated with high bat activity, possibly because they grow on fertile soil. Recommendations on tree retention guidelines are discussed.

Ten State Forests on the south-west slops 01 New South Wales were surveyed for bats at 39 forest sites and 24 water-bodies using ultra-sonic bat detectors, harp-traps, mist-nets and trip-lines. Thirteen species of bats were recorded for the region. Many species were widespread. with six of the 13 species recorded at more than 50% of sites; however four occurred at less than 20% of sites. Each State Forest sampled supported at least eight species. The species of bats present were representative of the biogeographical region of the study area, lying in the transitional zone between moist climates of the east and arid environments to the west. Within the range of elevations sampled (390-1 419 m). Chalinolobus gouldii, Vespadelus vulturnus, Mormopterus planiceps lp and Scotorepens balstoni were either absent or maintained lower activity levels above 1000 m. Bat activity and species richness was also low in forests typical of the most extreme climate (Snow Gum/Black Sallee), however no differences were found b...