Reclamation Highlights: There are broadly accessible guidelines for revegetation of oil and gas infrastructure for practitioners with introductory to intermediate experience in revegetation science. We present recommendations for the entire process of revegetation, from initial site analysis through postseeding management. Links to publicly available online revegetation resources are in the Literature Cited section.

Considering our growing population and our continuous degradation of soil environments, understanding the fundamental ecology of soil biota and plant microbiomes will be imperative to sustaining soil systems. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi extend their hyphae beyond plant root zones, creating microhabitats with bacterial symbionts for nutrient acquisition through a tripartite symbiotic relationship along with plants. Nonetheless, it is unclear what drives these AM fungal-bacterial relationships and how AM fungal functional traits contribute to these relationships. By delving into the literature, we look at the drivers and complexity behind AM fungal-bacterial relationships, describe the shift needed in AM fungal research towards the inclusion of interdisciplinary tools, and discuss the utilization of bacterial datasets to provide contextual evidence behind these complex relationships, bringing insights and new hypotheses to AM fungal functional traits. From this synthesis, we gather that interdependent microbial relationships are at the foundation of understanding microbiome functionality and deciphering microbial functional traits. We suggest using pattern-based inference tools along with machine learning to elucidate AM fungal-bacterial relationship trends, along with the utilization of synthetic communities, functional gene analyses, and metabolomics to understand how AM fungal and bacterial communities facilitate communication for the survival of host plant communities. These suggestions could result in improving microbial inocula and products, as well as a better understanding of complex relationships in terrestrial ecosystems that contribute to plant-soil feedbacks.

Land use and climate change put many rare plant species at risk of extinction. Translocation of rare species within restoration projects may be essential for their future survival, but successful recruitment from translocated individuals can be difficult to achieve. Physaria obcordata and Physaria congesta are endemic to a narrow band of shale outcrops subject to intense energy development in the Piceance Basin (Colorado, U.S.A.). We examined approaches for establishing new populations of these critically imperiled species in suitable but unoccupied habitats within their endemic range by monitoring fall‐sown seeds and fall‐ or spring‐transplanted seedlings for 6 years. Because these species are obligately outcrossing and populations exhibit genetic clustering, we monitored three translocation sites near (<600 m, one cluster) and three far (>600 m, mixed clusters) from the existing conspecific populations. Seeding and spring transplanting were successful for P. congesta but fall transplants did not survive. P. congesta were more than twice as likely to survive in sites near existing populations. Seeding largely failed for P. obcordata but transplanting in either season performed equally well, especially in sites far from the existing populations. Transplants first flowered after 1 year and recruitment occurred after 3 years in both species. Recruitment continued in both species through 2021. Although these species share many life history traits and habitat requirements, we found they differ in important ways relevant to translocation and long‐term population viability. Our work highlights the importance of understanding the unique population ecology of even closely related rare species to improve the likelihood of successful conservation.

The fundamental goal of a rare plant translocation is to create self-sustaining populations with the evolutionary resilience to persist in the long term. Yet, most plant translocation syntheses focus on a few factors influencing short-term benchmarks of success (e.g., survival and reproduction). Short-term benchmarks can be misleading when trying to infer future growth and viability because the factors that promote establishment may differ from those required for long-term persistence. We assembled a large (n = 275) and broadly representative data set of well-documented and monitored (7.9 years on average) at-risk plant translocations to identify the most important site attributes, management techniques, and species' traits for six life-cycle benchmarks and population metrics of translocation success. We used the random forest algorithm to quantify the relative importance of 29 predictor variables for each metric of success. Drivers of translocation outcomes varied across time frames and success metrics. Management techniques had the greatest relative influence on the attainment of life-cycle benchmarks and short-term population trends, whereas site attributes and species' traits were more important for population persistence and long-term trends. Specifically, large founder sizes increased the potential for reproduction and recruitment into the next generation, whereas declining habitat quality and the outplanting of species with low seed production led to increased extinction risks and a reduction in potential reproductive output in the long-term, respectively. We also detected novel interactions between some of the most important drivers, such as an increased probability of next-generation recruitment in species with greater seed production rates, but only when coupled with large founder sizes. Because most significant barriers to plant translocation success can be overcome by improving techniques or resolving site-level issues through early intervention and management, we suggest that by combining long-term monitoring with adaptive management, translocation programs can enhance the prospects of achieving long-term success.

Since the 1990s, forests have changed dramatically, transitioning from net forest loss to net forest increase in Vietnam. This study aims to advance the understanding of the factors driving forest transition at local scales. We employed GIS tools and a structural regression model to quantify the areas of rehabilitated forests and their determinants at the commune scale in Dien Bien province. We found that approximately 118,000 hectares of forest were rehabilitated during 1990 and 2010. Rehabilitated forests accounted for a large share of total forest gain (i.e., above 84%), and this proportion increased from 1990 to 2010. The presence of these rehabilitated forest was associated with both biophysical and accessibility factors. While no evidence regarding the effect of smallholder land use intensity or economic development was found, we did find that forestry land tenure policies facilitate the expansion of rehabilitated forests. The findings of this study can inform the development of policies that support small scale forest transition, environmental management, and upland sustainable development in Vietnam and other countries.

by nonnative annual plants that form prolific seed banks, including Bromus tectorum L. (cheat -grass), throughout western North America is a major natural resource concern. Even with known economic and ecological implications, soil seed banks and their potential to impact ecological restoration in arid and semiarid ecosystems are poorly understood. Quantifying the regenerative potential of the soil seed bank-the living seeds in the soil profile and on the soil surface-can help natural resource managers make decisions to increase the likelihood of restoration success. We analyzed the germinable soil seed bank composition and distribution of a rangeland site in western Colorado that experienced a wildfire in 1994 and is dominated by cheatgrass. We collected soil seed bank samples from 118 points in a 100 x 110 m grid to a depth of 5 cm. Each sample was split by depth from 0 to 2 cm and from 2 to 5 cm, and the seed bank was quanti-fied using greenhouse emergence methods. We found that seeds of native species were more dense and evenly distributed (3391 seeds center dot m-2) than seeds of nonnative species were (1880 seeds center dot m-2) in the 0-5 cm seed bank across the site. We also found that seeds of both native and nonnative species were concentrated in the 0-2 cm layer of the seed bank but that native and nonnative seeds were present in substantive densities in the 2-5 cm layer. These findings suggest that the soil seed bank of the site is resilient, and a targeted approach to specifically deplete the seed bank of nonnative annuals could facilitate restoration by the in situ native seed bank.

Mitigating invasive annual grass impacts is critical to halting native rangeland conversion to fire-prone, annual grass-dominated communities and maintaining the ecosystem services provided by perennial plants. The herbicide indaziflam (Rejuvra, Bayer, Leverkusen, Germany) may allow managers to selectively deplete annual grass seed banks in plant communities that continue to support desirable perennial vegetation, but nontarget impacts are difficult to assess in the small plots typically used in herbicide trials, and the potential for impacts to the seed bank is not well understood. To assess the potential for nontarget impacts resulting from indaziflam treatment, we used modified-Whittaker multiscale vegetation plots to compare diversity (species accumulation) in three treatment plots (73 g ai ha−1 indaziflam) and three control plots in sagebrush-grasslands near Pinedale, Wyoming that are invaded by cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum L.). We also assessed the density and richness of shallow (0- to 1-cm depth) and deep (1- to 5-cm depth) germinable seed banks in treatment and control plots by tracking seedling emergence from seed bank samples during a 20-wk greenhouse study. Vegetation data and seed bank samples were collected during the third growing season after treatment. Treatment did not impact aboveground species diversity, but this contrasted with the results of the seed bank assay; shallow and deep native seed bank density and shallow native seed bank richness were significantly reduced in treatment plots. All impacted species were detected in the aboveground plant community in treatment plots after herbicide application, suggesting that reduced native annual abundance may be temporary. Considering the potential for nontarget impacts to seed banks will help land managers accurately assess trade-offs when making treatment decisions.

Energy is an integral part of society. The major US energy sources of fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas); biofuels (ethanol); and wind are concentrated in grassland ecosystems of the Great Plains. As energy demand continues to increase, mounting pressures will be placed on North American grassland systems. In this review, we present the ecological effects of energy development and production on grassland systems. We then identify opportunities to mitigate these effects during the planning, construction, and production phases by using informed methodology and improved technology. Primary effects during energy development include small- and large-scale soil disturbance and vegetation removal as small patches of grasslands are used to host oil or gas wells, wind turbine pads, associated roadways, and pipelines or through the conversion of large grassland areas to biofuel croplands. Direct habitat loss or habitat fragmentation can affect wildlife directly through increased mortality or indirectly through reduction in habitat quantity and quality. During energy production, air and water quality can be affected through regular emissions or unplanned spills. Energy development can also affect the economy and health of local communities. During planning, energy development and production effects can be reduced by carefully considering effects on grasslands during siting and even by selecting different energy source types. During construction, effects on soil and plant systems can be minimized by eliminating weed populations before disturbance, salvaging and stockpiling topsoil for future revegetation, and harvesting native local seed for postsite restoration. During energy production operations, noise and road traffic reduction plans and atmospheric monitoring will enable more informed mitigation measures. Continued research on energy development effects and mitigation measures is necessary to establish best management practices beneficial to grassland health while providing needed energy for the United States.

Restoration of degraded drylands is urgently needed to mitigate climate change, reverse desertification and secure livelihoods for the two billion people who live in these areas. Bold global targets have been set for dryland restoration to restore millions of hectares of degraded land. These targets have been questioned as overly ambitious, but without a global evaluation of successes and failures it is impossible to gauge feasibility. Here we examine restoration seeding outcomes across 174 sites on six continents, encompassing 594,065 observations of 671 plant species. Our findings suggest reasons for optimism. Seeding had a positive impact on species presence: in almost a third of all treatments, 100% of species seeded were growing at first monitoring. However, dryland restoration is risky: 17% of projects failed, with no establishment of any seeded species, and consistent declines were found in seeded species as projects matured. Across projects, higher seeding rates and larger seed sizes resulted in a greater probability of recruitment, with further influences on species success including site aridity, taxonomic identity and species life form. Our findings suggest that investigations examining these predictive factors will yield more effective and informed restoration decision-making. The seeding of native species is critical to the success of dryland restoration efforts. Here the authors evaluate success of seeding establishment at 174 sites on six continents, finding that some sites had nearly 100% of species successfully recruit, while 17% of sites had zero seedling success.

For centuries, humans occupied and altered California Park, a unique high-elevation rangeland in northwestern Colorado. The area’s rich biodiversity attracted Native American hunters and successive European-American cattlemen, sheepherders, homesteaders, and recreationists. All of these groups influenced the area’s plant and animal composition and diversity, but heavy cattle and sheep grazing from the 1870s into the 1940s had a drastic and lasting impact on California Park. The area became part of the National Forest System in 1905 and since then the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service has managed livestock, hunting, and forest resources. Early accounts of California Park create a complex picture of the historical vegetation; some describe the landscape as a meadow supporting a variety of wildlife and surrounded by forest, and others refer to shrubland habitats. This report documents land-use change, management decisions, and subsequent ecosystem change in California Park since the late 1800s. Much of the report is based on a recent interview with a lifelong resident of the area, a retired Forest Service range manager. Other local primary and secondary historical sources supplement material from this interview. This chronology of land use helps to explain how present-day conditions developed and can inform management decisions. In recent years, the Forest Service has focused its management on sustaining native vegetation and wildlife and reversing upland and riparian degradation caused by humans. Despite land managers’ efforts, however, widespread invasive plants and soil limitations remain significant obstacles to maintaining desired vegetation composition within California Park. Knowledge about land-use change in California Park can assist restoration efforts in upland landscapes to favor ground-nesting birds and ungulates, and along stream corridors to enhance native trout and boreal toad populations.

Vietnam’s forests have undergone major transformations since the 1990s, including a transition from net forest loss to net expansion, which is attributable to plantation forests and rehabilitated forests. Our study aimed to better understand the patterns and the causes of forest cover rehabilitation in Vietnam to expand tropical forests in other regions. We used geographic information system tools, a structural regression model and a random effects model based on official Government of Vietnam forest cover maps, and field surveys to quantify the extent of rehabilitated forests and its drivers at the local, commune, scale, in Dien Bien province, Vietnam. Results showed that around 118,000 hectares of forests were rehabilitated between 1990 and 2010. Rehabilitated forests comprised the largest share (above 84%) of total forest gain and this share increased from 1990-2000 to 2000-2010. Rehabilitated forests were associated with biophysical and accessibility conditions (elevation and road density). Expansion of rehabilitated forests was mainly driven by the presence of migration, lower population density, higher income, and the implementation of forestry policies. The empirical results offer policy implications for forest restoration practices as part of forest-based climate change mitigation programs as well as for environmental management, sustainable mountainous rural livelihood development in Vietnam and beyond.

Vietnam's forests have experienced a notable transformation over the past 20 years from net deforestation to reforestation and expanding forests. Continued reforestation that aims to achieve further economic and environmental benefits remains a national priority and strategy. We explore the current status of plantation forests and highlight possible means to facilitate their expansion in the uplands of Vietnam. We employ mixed method triangulation to empirically explore plantation forests and their economic role in household livelihood, to quantify trade-offs between plantation forests and shifting cultivation, and to assess the constraints on plantation forest expansion in Nghe An province, north-central Vietnam. Results show that forest in the study area expanded by 406,000 ha (71.1%) between 1990 and 2016. Plantation forests increased by nearly 500% (from 32,000 ha to 190,000 ha), while natural forests expanded by 48.1% (from 538,000 ha to 797,000 ha). Plantation forests contributed an average of 35.1 percent of total household income in wealthier households and 27.9 percent of income in poor households. Switching from shifting cultivation to plantation forests would increase total household income and average carbon stock but decrease food provision. Total Economic Value would be higher for plantation forest scenarios if increased carbon stocks in plantations can be monetized. This carbon income might drive conversion of shifting cultivation to plantation forests. Constraints on further expansion of plantation forest are low external cooperation, education, market stability, and agroforestry extension services. Our empirical results inform national plantation forest development, sustainable upland livelihood development, and climate change mitigation programs to ultimately facilitate forest transition and improve the resilience and sustainability of socio-ecological systems.

The rhizosphere is defined as the region of soil surrounding plant roots which is under the influence of the root. This region is centered around the root, and is best defined by the biotic response to the influence of the root. Practically, this region is measured using biological indicators such as microbial density, enzymatic activity, or mapping root-derived chemical gradients. Thus, the spatial limits of the rhizosphere are determined by the soil biotic community under the direct or indirect influence of plant roots. The composition and dynamics of this biotic community is dependent on plant species, root architecture, plant carbon allocation, soil physical and chemical properties, microbial population diversity, among a host of other factors.

Management of restored ecosystems for multiple use is a modern necessity given a growing human population and dwindling supplies of ecosystem goods and services. Multiple use management refers to managing resources simultaneously for sustainable output of many goods and services. Within any restoration, thoughtful planning and early stakeholder engagement can help harmonize seemingly competing multiple uses. Although the field of ecological restoration is young and there are few long‐term lessons to draw from, we can infer from ecological theory that maximization of native biodiversity can impart resilience in the restored ecosystem and can buffer against the stress of multiple use management. Restoration for multiple use should be accompanied with an acknowledgment that humility is required and monitoring is needed to keep the restored ecosystem on an acceptable trajectory. The field of ecological restoration was founded upon the notion that ecosystems would be restored for ethical reasons, but modern realities have necessitated a more utilitarian approach to restoration that requires restoring ecosystems for multiple uses. This reality represents a grand challenge for the next generation of restoration ecologists.

Enviroment Forest area are narrowing

North American salt deserts are typically characterized by slow-growing Atriplex shrubs and perennial grasses with biological soil crusts (BSC) important in shrub interspaces. Disturbance due to heavy livestock use, wildfire, and recreation and energy development has increased the need for restoration of salt deserts in the western United States. However, restoration often fails due to invasive annual species and poor native plant establishment. In addition to a literature review, we surveyed restored salt desert sites in National Conservation Areas and other public lands in western Colorado ranging in age (3-63 yr) and restoration methods to assess approaches that were more or less successful. We used non-parametric ordination techniques to compare plant communities to environmental and restoration explanatory variables. Restored communities tended to move toward reference condition over time, but soil type, seeding, and type of disturbance also influenced plant community recovery. Overgrazed sites passively restored by long-term livestock exclusion were most similar to reference sites, while sites affected by wildfire and soil-related disturbances were most different from reference with non-native invasive annual grass (primarily Bromus tectorum) and forbs being common. These undesirable species were also more abundant on seeded sites than non-seeded or references sites, although mixes with a higher proportion of native species tended to improve outcomes. Results suggest that disturbance type and management approaches can have a large impact on restoration success in Intermountain West salt deserts, though many questions require further research.

Exotic plant invasion can have dramatic impacts on native plants making restoration of native vegetation at invaded sites challenging. Though invasives may be superior competitors, it is possible their dominance could be enhanced by insect herbivores if native plants are preferred food sources. Insect herbivory can regulate plant populations, but little is known of its effects in restoration settings. There is a need to better understand relationships between insect herbivores and invasive plants with regard to their combined potential for impacting native plant establishment and restoration success. The objective of this study was to assess impacts of grasshopper herbivory and the invasive grass Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass) on mortality and growth of 17 native plant species used in restoration of critical sagebrush steppe ecosystems. Field and greenhouse experiments were conducted using moderate densities of a common, generalist pest grasshopper ( Melanoplus bivittatus ). Grasshoppers had stronger and more consistent impacts on native restoration plants in field and greenhouse studies than cheatgrass. After 6 weeks in the greenhouse, grasshoppers were associated with 36% mortality over all native restoration species compared to 2% when grasshoppers were absent. Herbivory was also associated with an approximately 50% decrease in native plant biomass. However, effects varied among species. Artemisia tridentata , Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus , and Coreopsis tinctoria were among the most negatively impacted, while Oenothera pallida , Pascopyrum smithii , and Leymus cinerus were unaffected. These findings suggest restoration species could be selected to more effectively establish and persist within cheatgrass infestations, particularly when grasshopper populations are forecasted to be high.

Revegetation by seeding is an important tool in restoration. Seeding practices for restoration often rely on standard prescriptions for seed mix diversity and seeding rates. Seed mix diversity and rates are generally low within restoration projects and these practices are typically not informed by research. The objective of this study was to explore a new method for determining an optimal seed mix diversity and seeding rate for restoration of a semiarid grassland. We examined restoration success associated with differing seed mix diversity levels (5-50 species) and seeding rates (400-1,600 pure live seeds [PLS]/m(2)) using a response surface regression (RSR) experimental design at 12 disturbed sites in northeastern Colorado. Overall restoration success was evaluated based on optimizing desirability across nine individual responses: biomass and diversity of seeded, volunteer native, noxious, non-native species, and the density of seeded species. Greatest restoration success after four growing seasons occurred at a seed mix diversity of 35 species and a seeding rate of 1,366 PLS/m(2). RSR experimental design and analysis has seldom been used to answer ecological questions. This novel approach to address a pressing restoration challenge provided unique insight into how seed mix diversity and seeding rate, singly or in combination, influence the first 4 years of plant community development and overall restoration success. These results suggest that including more native species and seeding at higher rates than current practice could lead to greater restoration success in grasslands.

Pinyon-juniper (Pinus spp.–Juniperus spp.) encroachment and declining mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) populations in western Colorado have necessitated management for increased forage. Pinyon-juniper removal is one such technique; however, it is unclear which method of tree removal most effectively promotes forage species. We conducted an experiment to quantify understory responses to mechanical pinyon-juniper removal and seed additions in a blocked design using three different methods: anchor-chaining, rollerchopping, and mastication. Blocks contained each mechanical and seeding treatment along with an untreated control. Seven blocks across two sites, North Magnolia (NM, 4 blocks) and South Magnolia (SM, 3 blocks), were treated during the fall of 2011. Half of each plot was seeded before or during mechanical treatment with a mix of grasses, shrubs, and forbs. After two growing seasons, biomass of perennial grasses was 90–160 kg · ha−1 in mechanically treated plots compared with 10 kg · ha−1 in untreated controls. There were no differences, however, between mechanical treatments for any perennial plant species. Response of annual plant species depended on mechanical treatment type and site. Rollerchopping had higher exotic annual grass cover than mastication or control at NM and higher exotic annual forb cover than chaining or control at SM. Rollerchopping was the only treatment to have higher native annual forb cover than control in the absence of seeding. Seeding increased native annual forb biomass in mastication compared with control. Seeding also increased shrub density at SM, which had fewer shrubs pretreatment relative to NM. Results suggest any type of mechanical removal of pinyon-juniper can increase understory plant biomass and cover. Seeding in conjunction with mechanical treatments, particularly mastication, can initially increase annual forb biomass and shrub density. Finally, different understory responses between sites suggests that pretreatment conditions are important for determining outcomes of pinyon-juniper removal treatments.