This book describes the essential nature of human motivation by integrating the best ideas and evidence from motivational and evolutionary science. In doing so, the authors explain how the cultivation of goal-life alignment and 'thriving with social purpose' motivational patterns can inspire optimal functioning and enhance life meaning. Readers are provided with a comprehensive framework for guiding research and intervention efforts along with motivational principles designed to summarize the major themes in effective efforts to motivate yourself and those you wish to help or encourage. Special emphasis is placed on the importance of life meaning in empowering our motivational systems and protecting us from downward spirals of disappointment and suffering. Compelling evidence is provided to support the view that social purpose is as fundamental as self-interest in human motivational systems. The authors also focus on the catalytic role of social purpose in enabling humans to soar above all other species.

This is the first of two chapters that present the core ideas of Motivational Systems Theory (MST), along with supporting evidence that has continued to accumulate not only for MST concepts and principles but also for the broad range of motivation theories developed during the second half of the twentieth century that inspired the development of this integrative framework. Humans evolved to be goal directed, and motivational patterns are organized around goals and contexts. So, the first step in understanding human motivational systems is to dive deeply into the science of personal goals. Metaphorically, our core personal goals are the “leaders” in “motivational headquarters.”

This chapter discusses results from a program of research on adolescent social competence that has been guided by the Living Systems Framework (LSF). It illustrates how the multifaceted LSF can serve as a device for organizing and clarifying one's thinking, for integrating existing ideas and findings into a coherent picture, and for developing new ways of conceptualizing and studying significant issues regarding effective human functioning and development. Perhaps the most obvious and direct way in which the LSF was useful in formulating this study was in suggesting which social-cognitive processes should be of particular relevance in producing socially competent behavior. In LSF terminology, this conceptualization of competence focuses on the directive or goal-setting capabilities of humans. Adolescents who made a high percentage of irresponsible choices seemed to be more concerned with their personal goals than with being responsible, and appeared to be more suspectible to social-evaluative pressures.

This chapter demonstrates the utility of the framework for organizing a large and diverse body of research findings and for defining the various determinants of behavior in a specific domain. It describes the Living Systems Framework and applies it to children's general communicative functioning, noting the processes that have and have not been well researched. The chapter outlines integrative perspectives on children's speech adjustments. The inconsistency with which children display this aspect of communicative competence suggests that children must attain and coordinate a diverse set of skills and processes. Traditionally, communicative abilities have been examined from either linguistic, cognitive, or social perspectives. Most research on children's communication has focused on the governing functions of communication—system organization and coordination. Interest in children's goals and their monitoring of progress toward these goals has infused the field of communication development. Much of communication development, then, involves practicing procedures until they can be enacted routinely, with little conscious attention.

During adolescence, white matter microstructure undergoes an important stage of development. It is hypothesized that the alterations of brain connectivity that have a key role in autism spectrum conditions (ASCs) may interact with the development of white matter microstructure. This interaction may be present beyond the phenotype of autism in siblings of individuals with ASC, who are 10 to 20 times more likely to develop certain forms of ASC. We use diffusion tensor imaging to examine how white matter microstructure measurements correlate with age in typically developing individuals, and how this correlation differs in n =43 adolescents with ASC and their n =38 siblings. Correlations observed in n =40 typically developing individuals match developmental changes noted in previous longitudinal studies. In comparison, individuals with ASC display weaker negative correlation between age and mean diffusivity in a broad area centred in the right superior longitudinal fasciculus. These differences may be caused either by increased heterogeneity in ASC or by temporal alterations in the group’s developmental pattern. Siblings of individuals with ASC also show diminished negative correlation between age and one component of mean diffusivity—second diffusion eigenvalue—in the right superior longitudinal fasciculus. As the observed differences match for location and correlation directionality in our comparison of typically developing individuals to those with ASC and their siblings, we propose that these alterations constitute a part of the endophenotype of autism.

White matter development during adolescents is crucial for a mature integration of neural networks in the brain. Autism spectrum condition (ASC), characterized by social and communication difficulties and rigid behaviour may interact with white matter development observed during adolescence. Changes in white matter development may link autistic symptoms to its genetic underpinnings and explain a 10-fold increase in susceptibility to ASC among siblings of individuals with ASC. We used diffusion tensor imaging to study an association between age and white matter integrity measures, fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity (MD), in adolescents with ASC, their siblings and age-matched healthy controls. Diffusion-weighted data were acquired with 64-direction protocol with 3mm slices and TR of 6600ms and tract-based spatial statistics analysis was performed. The control subjects showed robust signs of increase in white matter integrity correlated with age. In contrast, individuals with ASC showed significantly lower negative correlation between MD and age in a broad area centred in the right superior longitudinal fasciculus (rSLF). When the three eigenvalues constituting a tensor ellipsoid were considered separately, siblings of individuals with ASC showed a diminished negative correlation between the second eigenvalue and age also centred in the rSLF. Adolescents with ASC and their siblings experience alterations in white matter development in comparison to age-matched healthy controls, which are similar in direction yet different in scale for the two affected groups. The alterations are observed in the area associated with flexibility of behaviour and may explain both symptoms of ASC and increased susceptibility to ASC.

This article responds to the need to synthesize theory and research in educational psychology by introducing the Thriving with Social Purpose (TSP) conceptual framework. TSP results when the four components of human motivation-goals, capability beliefs, context beliefs, and emotions-are amplified in dynamic, mutually reinforcing patterns. The centerpiece of the TSP motivational pattern is an active approach goal orientation informed by a fundamental concern for others (social purpose). This orientation is supported and strengthened by a firm belief in one's ability to make progress toward meaningful goals (personal optimism), a persistent tendency to imagine alternative pathways when progress is challenged (mindful tenacity), and intentional efforts to align emotions and circumstances in ways that will best facilitate goal progress (emotional wisdom). The TSP framework also emphasizes positive (discrepancy increasing) feedback cycles that accelerate learning and competence development, facilitate meaningful change, and promote personal and social well-being.

This intervention study compared the efficacy of two treatments for increasing dating frequency and reducing interpersonal discomfort in heterosocial interactions among shy men. Sixty self-described shy single men were randomly assigned to one of three groups: cognitive-behavioral workshop, practice dating, or waiting-list (delayed work-shop) control. All participants agreed to attend a singles function where female observers, posing as party goers, made notes regarding the men's social behavior at this public event. These notes indicated that, overall, workshop participants demonstrated greater levels of social competence than did either practice daters or control group members. Workshop participants also showed greater increases in social self-efficacy than did men in the control group. Dating frequency increased modestly for workshop and practice-dating participants and significantly for delayed workshop participants at a 2-month follow- up.

The development of responsible and caring behavior patterns is a major concern of parents and professionals responsible for the education and socialization of adolescents (Damon, 1995). For example, in a recent study (Krumboltz, Ford, Nichols, & Wentzel, 1987) in which parents and teachers of several hundred high-school students were asked to rate 120 goal statements in terms of “How important is it that people achieve this outcome by age 18?” the top four goals were all concerned with aspects of social responsibility and caring behavior: