In the Middle Jurassic, whether the Bangong-Nujiang Tethys Ocean extended eastward from the central Tibetan Plateau into western Yunnan, China, thereby separating the Tengchong and Baoshan blocks, remains unresolved. Middle Jurassic carbonate rocks of the Liuwan Formation of the Baoshan Block provide essential insights. This study examines the petrography, rare earth element and yttrium (REE+Y) geochemistry, and strontium isotopic composition of the Liuwan Formation limestones to determine their depositional environment and tectonic setting. Results indicate that these carbonate rocks show no significant recrystallization or dissolution. REE+Y patterns show light-REE enrichment, slightly positive La and Ce anomalies, a minimal Eu anomaly, and a Y anomaly, all indicating open marine conditions. The 87Sr/86Sr ratios range from 0.707287 to 0.707554 (averaging 0.707365) and are slightly higher than those of coeval seawater. These geochemical signatures suggest a depositional environment between open marine and restricted settings, influenced by freshwater influx and volcanic activity, indicating an ocean separating the Baoshan and Tengchong blocks. Tectonic proxies suggest a stable passive margin for the Baoshan Block and a subduction-related tectonic/depositional setting for the Tengchong Block. Subduction of the Bangong-Nujiang Ocean beneath the Tengchong Block explains these distinct tectonic settings. Correlations among 87Sr/86Sr values and REE+Y geochemistry of the Liuwan Formation reveal paleoceanographic characteristics of the ancient subducted ocean and the contributions from multiple sources. These findings support the existence of the Bangong-Nujiang Ocean between the Tengchong and Baoshan blocks during the Middle Jurassic, enhancing our understanding of eastern Tethys paleogeography and evolution.

The Peshawar Basin in northern Pakistan represents a geologically and culturally significant region with enormous potential for geotourism development. Despite this, its geotourism resources remain underexplored. This study evaluates key geosites within the entire basin, emphasizing their scientific, educational, and cultural significance. Two established assessment approaches including the Geosite Assessment Model (GAM) and the Brilha Method (BM), are applied to four representative sites: Quaternary sand deposits, the Devonian reef of the Nowshera Formation, Rhyolite deposits of the Gohati area, and the junction of the Kabul and Indus rivers associated with the Gandhara Civilization. While two of these sites have been previously studied, this research provides an integrated evaluation of the overall geotourism potential of the Peshawar Basin. Results indicate high geotourism and educational value, particularly for river junction. The basin also preserves an important Quaternary sedimentary record, offering insights into recent past climatic variations and their influence on human settlement. However, increasing pressures from mining and urbanization pose significant threats to these sites. To promote sustainable geotourism and support economic development, it is recommended that these sites be designated as protected areas and that collaborative initiatives between governmental and academic institutions be strengthened. Such measures could establish the Peshawar Basin as a prominent geotourism destination at both national and international levels.

As the residual products of severe chemical weathering, bauxite deposits serve both as essential economic Al-Fe resources and geochemical archives that reveal information about the parent rocks’ composition, paleoenvironments and paleoclimates, and the tectonic settings responsible for their genesis. The well-developed Early Paleocene bauxite deposits of the Salt Range, Pakistan, provide an opportunity for deciphering their ore genesis and parental affinities. The deposits occur as lenticular bodies and are typically composed of three consecutive stratigraphic facies from base to top: (1) massive dark-red facies (L-1), (2) composite conglomeratic–pisolitic facies (L-2), and (3) Kaolinite-rich clayey facies (L-3). Results from optical microscopy, X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), and scanning electron microscopy with Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) reveal that facies L-1 contains kaolinite, hematite, and goethite as major minerals, with minor amounts of muscovite, quartz, anatase, and rutile. In contrast, facies L-2 primarily consists of kaolinite, boehmite, hematite, gibbsite, goethite, alunite/natroalunite, and zaherite, with anatase, rutile, and quartz as minor constituents. L-3 is dominated by kaolinite, quartz, and anatase, while hematite and goethite exist in minor concentrations. Geochemical analysis reveals elevated concentrations of Al2O3, Fe2O3, SiO2, and TiO2. Trace elements, including Th, U, Ga, Y, Zr, Nb, Hf, V, and Cr, exhibit a positive trend across all sections when normalized to Upper Continental Crust (UCC) values. Field observations and analytical data suggest a polygenetic origin of these deposits. L-1 suggests in situ lateritization of some sort of precursor materials, with enrichment in stable and ultra-stable heavy minerals such as zircon, tourmaline, rutile, and monazite. This facies is mineralogically mature with bauxitic components, but lacks the typical bauxitic textures. In contrast, L-2 is texturally and mineralogically mature, characterized by various-sized pisoids and ooids within a microgranular-to-microclastic matrix. The L-3 mineralogy and texture suggest that the conditions were still favorable for bauxite formation. However, the ongoing tectonic activities and wet–dry climate cycles post-depositionally disrupted the bauxitization process. The accumulation of highly stable detrital minerals, such as zircon, rutile, tourmaline, and monazite, indicates prolonged weathering and multiple cycles of sedimentary reworking. These deposits have parental affinity with acidic-to-intermediate/-argillaceous rocks, resulting from the weathering of sediments derived from UCC sources, including cratonic sandstone and shale.

The magmatic arcs in the north-west region of Pakistan comprises of numerous volcanic and plutonic bodies of different ages and compositions evolved during the subduction of the Neo- Tethys Ocean under the Eurasian supercontinent. This study focusses on the examination of the granitoids of the Kohistan batholith (a part of Kohistan-Ladakh Island Arc; KLIA) and the Khunjerab pluton, concentrating on their petrological traits, mineral chemistry, in-situ zircon U-Pb geochronology, and whole-rock major and trace element geochemistry. According to zircon U-Pb dating, the Kohistan batholith granitoid was emplaced around 91.7 +/- 0.3 Ma, while zircons of the Khunjerab pluton yield ages of 106.4 +/- 0.4 Ma and 106.4 +/- 1.0 Ma. All the samples from both magmatic units have calcic to calc-alkaline (Na2O + K2O: 3.6-10.6 wt.% and SiO2: 60-73 wt.%), metaluminous to peraluminous properties (Aluminum Saturation Index (ASI): 0.9- 1.2). Notably, Nb, Ta, and Ti show depletion, while large ion lithophile elements like Cs, Rb, and K have been enriched. Additionally, we find that SiO2 and P2O5 have a negative correlation while Rb and Th have a positive correlation, which confirm an I-type arc magmatism. Together with the published literature, TEM analysis, and thermal modelling, our zircon U-Pb results point to a period of continuous magmatic activity from the Late Jurassic to the Late Cretaceous (between 150 Ma and 91 Ma) in the Kohistan Island arc region while the Khunjerab pluton (part of Karakorum block/Eurasian plate) experienced widespread magmatism around 120 Ma to 106 Ma. With SiO2 concentrations ranging from 67.5-73.3 wt.% and 60- 71.4 wt.% and relatively low alkali (Na2O + K2O) contents between 3.6-10.6 wt.% and 5.1-7.4 wt.% in the Kohistan batholith and Khunjerab pluton respectively, showing clear signs of acidity. The whole rock as well as the mineral geochemical analysis and the elevated water contents (8-10 wt.% and 3.1-3.5 wt.%) inferred from amphibole and biotite chemistry respectively, indicates that the Kohistan batholith was most likely formed through partial melting of a (hydrous) magma originating from a more or less altered metasomatized mantle wedge. Likewise, the Khunjerab pluton whole rock geochemistry also indicates its origin through partial melting of magma originating from an altered metasomatized mantle wedge. This study also shows that both units are not only different in terms of the nature of magmatism but also in terms of their ages i.e., continental arc magmatism occurred in the Khunjerab (Karakoram) block in the middle Cretaceous (106 Ma) while island arc magmatism occurred on the Kohistan side in the late

Research on ionospheric and atmospheric anomalies related to earthquakes has advanced our understanding of lithosphere-atmosphere-ionosphere interactions. Despite this progress, precursor signals are often obscured by solar disturbances such as flares, coronal mass ejections, and geomagnetic storms (i.e. Solar Flares, solar wind speed, interplanetary magnetic field, etc.). This study investigates seismo-ionospheric and atmospheric anomalies associated with two offshore Japanese earthquakes with magnitudes Mw = 7.1 (37.156oN, 144.661oE) and Mw = 7.3 (37.89oN, 143.949oE) using GNSS-derived Total Electron Content (TEC), geomagnetic indices (Kp, Dst, AE), and foF2 data. Anomalies were identified using three statistical techniques: (1) mean +/- standard deviation, (2) median +/- interquartile range, and (3) wavelet transform-based detection. All methods revealed anomalies 4-10 days before and 3-5 days after the events. To distinguish seismic precursors from solar-induced variations, geomagnetic indices (Kp, Dst, AE, foF2, and quiet-to-storm day ratios) were integrated using both soft (OR) and hard (AND) logic constraints. Furthermore, NOAA/NCEP Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR) composite maps showed spatiotemporal alignment with TEC anomalies, supporting the diffusion theory of seismo-ionospheric coupling. The strong consistency across detection methods enhances confidence in these findings. This study offers a robust integrated approach for identifying earthquake-related anomalies under both geomagnetically quiet, improving previously established methodologies.

Boiling is one of the common processes that lead to the formation and enrichment of precious metal deposits. The investigation of the spatial relations between fluid boiling and deposition of precious metals is a valuable tool in exploration of epithermal deposits. Fluid boiling, isothermal mixing and surface dilution of fluids processes are important factors for the instability of chloride and sulphide complexes, which lead to the simultaneous deposition of Fe-Cu and then deposition of sulphide phases in the final stages of mineralization which are caused by a sudden decrease in pressure in the fractures. To investigate evidence of boiling and its role in mineralization we have studied fluid inclusions and quartz textures in the Mamouniyeh Cu deposite in the middle part of Urumieh-Dokhtar magmatic arc in Iran. Evidence for fluid boiling, such as different liquid-vapor ratios of fluid inclusions, the coexistence of fluid inclusions with different salinities and co-existing liquid single-phase fluid inclusions with vapor single-phase fluid inclusions and breccia, crustiform and colloform textures of quartz indicate that boiling process occurred during the formation and growth of minerals. The study of 138 fluid inclusions in ore-bearing silica veins shows the similar density values from 0.8 to 1 g/cm3 for quartz with pyrite + chalcopyrite, chalcopyrite and chalcopyrite + specularite ± pyrite ± chalcocite mineralization systems. Adjacency of multiphase fluids with vapor-rich fluid inclusions indicates that fluids are trapped at the boiling point, that is, in the state where the vapor is in equilibrium with the liquid. As a result of this boiling part of the Cu in the fluids was deposited as chalcopyrite. Evidence shows this process probably occurred at a depth of about 700 meters below the water table and lithostatic pressure of about 16 MPa. In the case study area, boiling, mixing of magmatic fluids with meteoric fluids and cooling process by oxide and sulphide complexes, that this mixing process has reduced the temperature and salinity in the system and caused oxide-sulphide mineralization include chalcopyrite, pyrite, bornite, specularite, and secondary ore minerals include chalcocite, covellite, azurite, malachite, chrysocolla, goethite, and limonite which related to granodiorite, monzonite and gabbro-diorite intrusive rocks.

Cenozoic plutonic rocks in northeast Saveh, part of the central Urumieh–Dokhtar Magmatic Arc (UDMA) in Iran, comprise monzonite, monzodiorite, gabbro, and gabbrodiorite. Geochemical, zircon U-Pb geochronology, and Hf isotopic data reveal that these plutonic rocks belong to a medium-K calc-alkaline, metaluminous series with arc-related signatures. Zircon U-Pb ages (ca. 60 to 3 Ma) indicate prolonged magmatic evolution from the Middle Paleocene to the Middle Pliocene. Contrary to earlier reports of a 15 Ma period of reduced magmatic activity (ca. 72–57 Ma), our data indicate a shorter interval (ca. 10–12 Ma) during which magmatic activity decreased significantly. Key magmatic pulses occurred during the Late Eocene (ca. 40–47 Ma), Early Miocene (ca. 23–18 Ma), and Late Miocene–Pliocene (ca. 11–5.2 Ma), with geochemical data indicating a subduction-related origin. The most recent magmatic pulses in the central UDMA, potentially extending across the entire UDMA, are dated between 5 and 2.5 Ma, identified in a cluster of zircons from gabbroic rocks, which could correspond to the concluding stages of slab steepening related to continental subduction. Zircon εHf(t) values (−11.43 to 12.5) and geochemical data suggest fractional crystallization, crustal assimilation, and mantle-derived melts. The clinopyroxene crystallization temperatures (1150–1200 °C) and supporting geochemical data imply that magma was produced in a metasomatized spinel–lherzolite mantle at depths <80 km. This generation is associated with asthenospheric upwelling and slab rollback, which, in turn, triggered the partial melting of the lithosphere and fueled the region’s magmatic activity.

This study deals with unraveling the diagenesis-induced porosity evolution in a mixed clastic-carbonate sequence of the Middle Permian Indus Basin, Pakistan. Multiple data sets including outcrop, petrography, cathodoluminescence, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), mineralogy, and geochemical isotopic compositions were integrated to establish a link between porosity evolution and diagenesis. The spatial thickness and facies variations of the strata at outcrop scale are inherently controlled by the underlying bathymetry of the basin with deepening westward trend. The depleted values of δ18O of the target strata, relative to standard values of the Permian carbonate, hints to diagenetic alteration in the strata. The data sets used in this study reveal modification of the strata in four environments, that is, i) early marine diagenesis indicated by micritization, pervasive dolomitization and isopachous fibrous cements, followed by ii) meteoric dissolution, and iii) shallow burial diagenetic processes including the precipitation of blocky cement, compaction of skeletal and non-skeletal allochems, and stylolites, and iv) a deep burial environment, characterized by pressure solution, and micro-fractures. The clastic intervals host subangular to subrounded quartz grains, floating textures, and almost complete absence of deleterious clay minerals, consequently resulting in the preservation of primary porosity. The primary porosity of carbonate intervals is preserved in the form of intercrystalline and intracrystalline porosity. The secondary porosity evolved through various diagenetic phases in the form of fractures and dissolution. The diagenetic solution mediated by organic matter in carbonates may have experienced both bacterial decomposition and thermochemical sulfate reduction, precipitating sulfides within the pores. The plug porosity/permeability analyses generally suggest high porosity in the siliciclastic unit, and carbonates with wackestone fabric while lower values were observed for the inner shelf pure carbonate facies. However, both intervals show very low permeability values probably due to isolated moldic pores and intense micritization. Therefore, clastic intervals may provide an opportunity to serve as a moderate reservoir; however, the carbonate intervals possess very low permeability values and could generally be considered as low-moderate reservoir potential.

The Mamuniyeh Cu deposit is located in the central part of the Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Arc (UDMA), 10 km south of the city of Mamuniyeh, Iran. Mineralization is controlled by faults with a NW-SE trend and hosted within an Eocene volcanic sequence and Oligo-Miocene hypabyssal calc-alkaline monzonitic and gabbroic bodies. Quartz + chalcopyrite veins are most abundant and high-grade ore containing up to 5 wt% Cu, although quartz + pyrite veins have the most abundant sulphide content. In addition, quartz + chalcopyrite + specular hematite + pyrite veins/veinlets are another common mineralized assemblage in the Mamuniyeh copper deposit, with pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, and oxide minerals (specular hematite, titanomagnetite, and magnetite) typical of the hypogene stage. Chalcocite, covellite, and dignite also formed at the margins of primary sulphides in the supergene (paleoweathering) stage. The mineralized veins exhibit colloform, crustiform, open space-fillings, replacements, and dissemination textural characteristics associated with mineralizing assemblages with silicification, argillization, chloritization, and sericitization assemblages. The salinity for L > V fluid inclusions is between 1.74 to 11.7 wt% NaCl and for (V > L) inclusions between 1.7 to 11.4 wt% NaCl. The average homogenization temperature and salinity for quartz + chalcopyrite + pyrite veins is 186 degrees C and 4.9 wt% NaCl. In the quartz + chalcopyrite assemblage an average of 185 degrees C and 4.5 wt% NaCl and for quartz + chalcopyrite + specularite + pyrite (QCSP) an average of 195 degrees C and 5.59 wt% NaCl was determined. In these three vein types, the fluid density has almost identical values ranging from 0.8 to 1.0 g/cm3. The mineralizing system evolved in two-stages; the first metal precipitation occurred at less than 1 km of crustal depths and second metal deposition stage at shallower crustal levels (less than 500 m). Although it appears that the boiling process occurred within the fluids of the area, the primary factor contributing to Cu mineralization was influenced by fluidmixing processes. The delta 18O and delta D values of ore fluids computed vary from + 6.08 to -0.50 %o and -92 to -71 %o, respectively, indicative of the blending of oxidizing and cooler meteoric waters with primary magmatic fluids. Calculated values of delta 34S of H2S in equilibrium with chalcopyrite ranges from -7.6 to -1.9 %o and H2S in equilibrium with pyrite ranges from -7.1 to -3.8 %o, respectively; this is consistent with monzodiorite to gabbro as the magmatic sulphur source for copper mineralizing fluids. Furthermore, the QCSP vein data align more closely with primary magmatic water compared to other veins, suggesting that precipitation occurred mainly from magmatic fluids, which experienced depletion in delta 18O due to mixing with meteoric waters (shallow oxygenated ground waters), which caused sulphide deposition. The geochemical features for these magmas show that contamination with crustal materials occurred during the ascent of the parent magma, as well as the role of suprasubduction fluids released from the subducting plate in mantle metasomatism. Based on all evidence, Cu mineralization in the Mamuniyeh deposit has been categorized as a low-sulphidation epithermal-type system, which formed during active magmatism in the central part of UDMA.

Soil erosion is a crucial geo-environmental hazard worldwide that affects water quality and agriculture,decreases reservoir storage capacity due to sedimentation,and increases the danger of flooding and landslides.Thus,this study uses geospatial modeling to produce soil erosion susceptibility maps(SESM)for the Hangu region,Khyber Pakhtunkhwa(KPK),Pakistan.The Hangu region,located in the Kohat Plateau of KPK,Pakistan,is particularly susceptible to soil erosion due to its unique geomorphological and climatic characteristics.Moreover,the Hangu region is characterized by a combination of steep slopes,variable rainfall patterns,diverse land use,and distinct soil types,all of which contribute to the complexity and severity of soil erosion processes.These factors necessitate a detailed and region-specific study to develop effective soil conservation strategies.In this research,we detected and mapped 1013 soil erosion points and prepared 12 predisposing factors(elevation,aspect,slope,Normalized Differentiate Vegetation Index(NDVI),drainage network,curvature,Land Use Land Cover(LULC),rainfall,lithology,contour,soil texture,and road network)of soil erosion using GIS platform.Additionally,GIS-based statistical models like the weight of evidence(WOE)and frequency ratio(FR)were applied to produce the SESM for the study area.The SESM was reclassified into four classes,i.e.,low,medium,high,and very high zone.The results of WOE for SESM show that 16.39%,33.02%,29.27%,and 21.30%of areas are covered by low,medium,high,and very high zones,respectively.In contrast,the FR results revealed that 16.50%,24.33%,35.55%,and 23.59%of the areas are occupied by low,medium,high,and very high classes.Furthermore,the reliability of applied models was evaluated using the Area Under Curve(AUC)technique.The validation results utilizing the area under curve showed that the success rate curve(SRC)and predicted rate curve(PRC)for WOE are 82%and 86%,respectively,while SRC and PRC for FR are 85%and 96%,respectively.The validation results revealed that the FR model performance is better and more reliable than the WOE.

The investigation of various factors effecting the Lead (Pb) diffusion in phosphate minerals such as apatite is still challenging in the interpretation of (U-Th)/Pb geochronology. For (U-Th)/Pb system, apatite minerals have closure temperatures in the range of 375 to 600 degrees C and therefore can be used for the investigation of mid temperature thermochronological and/or petrochronological questions i.e., the reconstruction of thermal events in Earth's crust. There is still uncertainty whether Pb diffusion in apatite is characterized by thermally activated volume and/or anisotropic diffusion profiles or is instead impacted by novel growth processes and recrystallization (chemical substitutions). As the apatite structure support extensive compositional variability, including partial or total substitution of both the cationic and anionic sites and forms solid solutions therefore, it necessitates a thorough examination of these effects and anisotropy on Pb diffusivity and (U-Th)/Pb geochronometric system. For this, a multi-scale study is carried out to examine the effects of chemical composition, anisotropy, and growth structure on the diffusion of Pb in order to better understand the behaviour of Pb diffusion in apatite. This study employed computational techniques like Density Functional Theory (DFT) and Transition State Theory (TST) at the atomic level and integrates it with the Kinetic Monte Carlo (KMC) simulations at the macroscopic level. Models of this study shows that Pb diffusion is completely anisotropic along the preferred z-axis or [001] direction and Pb readily escapes faster from Na-substituted apatite when compared to pure F-apatite and Cl-substituted apatite. Because of this anisotropy and chemical substitutions, Pb diffusivity in apatite either increases by opening of diffusion channels or decreases by blocking the diffusion channels depending on the site and type of chemical substitution. Further, in case of blocking effect the Pb diffusion occurs through workaround pathways and approaches towards the isotropic diffusion. For Na-substituted apatite, the impact of Na occupation on anisotropic Pb diffusion is significantly greater while in case of Cl-substituted apatite the Cl occupation mostly leads towards isotropic diffusion by opening the diffusion paths along other directions (mostly along the in-plane direction). Furthermore, the high closure temperatures (Tc) (e.g.,-1370 degrees C) of the modelled apatites (except the perfect Na-substituted apatite e.g.,-500 degrees C) of this study when compared to the Tc of Durango apatite obtained experimentally for the effective grain size of 100 mu m and cooling rates of 10 degrees C/Ma indicate that the effective closure temperature dominantly depends on the degree and types of chemical substitutions and play a crucial role for the closure or opening of Pb diffusion/loss in apatites.

Factors that affect the diffusion of lead (Pb) in zircon are still a debatable issue amongst geochronologists. These are anisotropy, chemical composition, metamictization, radiation damage, and defects such as vacancy and Frenkel pairs. Careful investigations of such effects require a detailed description at atomic levels. This study focuses on the details of Pb diffusion pathways (anisotropy) at the atomic scale level in perfect zircon lattices for the better understanding of thermo/petro-chronological problems in geosciences. The applications of Density Functional Theory (DFT) combined with both the Nudged Elastic Band (NEB) method and Transition State Theory (TST) together with Kinetic Monte Carlo (KMC) simulations provide a reasonable estimate of the activation energy and diffusion of lead (Pb) in a perfect zircon lattice. Results of the tested methodology give the diffusion co-efficient of anisotropic nature in perfect zircon i.e. the activation energies and frequency factors (D0) along the z-axis [001] is 687 kJ/mol and 4.16 x 10-3cm2/sec, along zx-axis [101]/[011] is 1331 kJ/mol and 8.57 x 10-4cm2/sec and along the x-axis is 5810 kJ/mol and 8.57 x 10-4cm2/sec respectively. The Closure temperatures for Pb in perfect zircon lattices are reasonably high for an effective grain size of 60 mu m and a cooling history of 10 degrees C/Ma. This study also demonstrates that the closure temperature is affected not only by the geometry of a given grain, but also by defects and radiation damage. Furthermore, the calculated closure temperatures show poor calibrations with previous experiments of Pb diffusion in natural zircon, implying that radiation damage and vacancies are causing the reduction in Pb diffusion. Therefore, the gap between the computed and experimental results may probably be due to the change in the chemistry of each zircon crystal used in the experiments. This study is useful in characterizing the effect of individual entities on Pb diffusion in zircon, showing good agreement with experiments, and indicating the applicability of DFT + NEB+TST + KMC methods for characterization of Pb diffusion in perfect zircon.

Groundwater is a crucial natural resource that varies in quality and quantity across Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), Pakistan. Increased population and urbanization place enormous demands on groundwater supplies, reducing both their quality and quantity. This research aimed to delineate the groundwater potential zone in the Kohat region, Pakistan by integrating twelve thematic layers. In the current research, Groundwater Potential Zone (GWPZ) were created by implementing Weight of Evidence (WOE), Frequency Ratio (FR), and Information Value (IV) models of the Kohat region. In this study, we used Sentinel-2 satellite data were utilized to generate an inventory map of groundwater using machine learning algorithms in Google Earth Engine (GEE). Furthermore, the validation was done with a field survey and ground data. The inventory data was divided into training (80%) and testing (20%) datasets. The WOE, FR, and IV models are applied to assess the relationship between inventory data and groundwater factors to generate the GWPZ of the Kohat region. Finally, the current research results of Area Under Curve (AUC) technique for WOE, FR, and IV models were 88%, 91%, and 89%. The final GWPZ can aid in better future planning for groundwater exploration, management, and supply of water in the Kohat region.

Soil erosion is one of Pakistan’s most serious environmental threats. This study used geospatial modelling to identify the distinct zones susceptible to soil erosion in Murree, Pakistan. Using a machine learning technique in the Google Earth engine (GEE) and Google Earth, we identified 1250 soil erosion events. The inventory (dependent variable) was separated into two datasets, one for training (70%) and one for testing (30%). Elevation, slope, aspect, curvature, stream, precipitation, LULC, lithology, soil, NDVI, and distance to road were prepared in ArcGIS and considered as independent variables in the current research. GIS and RS-based models such as WOE, FR, and IV were used to assess the relationship between both variables and produce soil erosion susceptibility maps. Finally, the Area Under Curve (AUC) approach was used to confirm the research results. According to the validation data, the SRC for WOE, FR, and IV were 88%, 91%, and 87%, respectively. The present study’s validation results show that the PRC for WOE, FR, and IV are 92%, 94%, and 90%, respectively. Based on the AUC validation approach, we determined that the FR model had the highest accuracy when compared to the other two techniques, the WOE and IV models. The current analysis and final susceptibility maps of soil erosion could be useful for decision-makers in the future to prevent soil erosion and its negative repercussions.

Most of the surface wave-based geophysical methods require an accurate estimate of the shear wave velocity (Vs) for geotechnical site investigation. The Vs gives a measure of shear modulus which is an important engineering parameter and also owns implications for delineating weak zones and cavities. Geotechnical investigation of such zones is imperative to avoid hazards related to high building construction. Among different surface wave-based geophysical methods, the multi-channel analysis of surface waves (MASW) is most widely used technique for geotechnical investigation by measuring in situ Vs. The present work focuses on MASW data acquisition and processing for accurate estimation of Vs by using dispersion analysis and different iteration-based inversion techniques (i.e., Monte Carlo and least square approaches). The proposed methodology is investigated at two sites in Abu Dhabi, UAE, using 24-channel seismograph network. The obtained results suggest that Monte Carlo approach is more efficient and reliable for Vs profile estimation and is recommended for geotechnical investigation. Monte Carlo approach-based results of the MASW velocity-profiles at both sites confirmed cavities and their geometries within the subsurface. Furthermore, the identified cavities are well in agreement with the trail borehole data, thus improving the confidence level of the obtained results. The characterization of the soil of both the sites and its implications are also presented with the help of NEHRP and IBC codes.

The Middle Jurassic age Samana Suk Formation, exposed in Chichali Nala section of Surghar ranges has been investigated by field work, petrographic study and XRD analysis to understand the microfacies, depositional environment and fault related dolomitization of the Samana Suk Formation. This formation is widely distributed in the upper Indus basin of Pakistan and considered the most prominent stratigraphic unit of the Jurassic period. The project area lies in the Chichali Nala Section of Surghar range (Trans Indus Salt Ranges). In this section, Samana Suk Formation constitutes the lithology of carbonate having CaCo3 as a major mineral, where dolomite is present in minor amount, which is restricted to fluids along fault zone. During the study two major microfacies have been identified including the Grainstone microfacies and Mudstone-Wackestone microfacies. Samana Suk. Formation was formed under stormy influence in the environment of deposition of Formation. Its depositional environment is the inner-middle shelf which suggests the marine shelf depositional environment.

Gas hydrates are part of the unconventional energy resources called the gas clathrates. The present work focused on the assessment of gas hydrates potential of Makran area, Offshore, Pakistan. The presence of a clear bottom simulating reflector (BSR) is primary indicator for the occurrence of gas hydrates and generally referred to as base of gas hydrates stability zone. The gas hydrates zone in the study area was identified by the application of seismic attributes (sweetness, relative acoustic impedance and normalized apparent polarity) using major characteristics of BSR i.e. amplitude blanking, adopting the shape of seafloor, cross cutting the sedimentary structures and opposite polarity to seafloor. A low velocity layer was also interpreted beneath the hydrates layer due to the existence of free gas. Rock physics modelling for the two different geometrical distribution of hydrates was also applied to obtain effective elastic properties. The results of rock physics modelling showed that the hydrates as part of sediments have higher elastic properties compared to hydrates in pore spaces, and these properties were controlled by saturation of gas hydrates. Using the effective elastic properties, amplitude versus offset (AVO) forward modelling (Exact Zoeppritz + ray tracing) for different scenarios was performed to characterize the presence of BSR more efficiently.

Seismic reservoir characterization is a renowned technique to obtain a better understandingand quantification of hydrocarbon bearing reservoirs by integration of seismic attributes, post stack inversion and wireline log analysis. In current case study, a methodology based on these techniques is proposed, and its applicability is tested for delineating the secondary reservoir potential of the Eocene carbonates (Habib Rahi and Sui Upper Limestone) in Qadirpur area, Lower Indus Basin, Pakistan. The application of post stack inversion provides a reasonable estimate of the acoustic impedance and enables the spatial distribution of important petrophysical properties (effective porosity and water saturation) available at sparse well locations. This distribution is facilitated by developing geostatistical relations between seismic and well derived reservoir properties in the range of seismic resolution. The results from all integrated techniques depict fluid saturated zones at Habib Rahi (gas at 907-922 m; water at 953-973 m) and Sui Upper Limestone (gas at 1192-1208 m) levels. The spatial distribution of the reservoir properties (effective porosity and water saturation) obtained via seismic data shows a very good calibration at the location of wells and reflects significant secondary reservoir potential for Eocene carbonates in the study area (effective porosity in the range of 7-26% and water saturation in the range of 35-60%). Furthermore, the methodology tested over here will be advantageous for the characterization of oil/gas reservoirs in various basins of Asia and other parts of world with similar geological settings.

This study reports the application of the novel supervised learning approach called vanishing component analysis (VCA) for the classification of lithologies from well log signal data. Geophysical well log data is always non-linear due to anisotropy and heterogeneity of the earth. The main purpose of this study is to test the applicability of the VCA algorithm on non-linear geophysical data of Siraj South-01, Middle Indus Basin, Pakistan for classification of lithologies/facies. We demonstrate the performance and stability of the novel approach on a case study before applying it on well log data. Our analysis demonstrates that VCA algorithm is able to linearly separate such a complex non-linear well log data and clearly distinguish between different classes of well log data coming from different rock units. Furthermore, we show that the average accuracies of the classification methods of linear support vector machines, eXtreme gradient boosting, random forest, neural network and linear discriminant analysis on the VCA feature space are much better than the average accuracy obtained by the same methods on the original data.

Seismic post-stack inversion facilitates the interpretation, mapping and quantification of hydrocarbon-bearing zones. This study estimates reservoir properties (i.e. acoustic impedance and porosity) by applying post-stack seismic inversion techniques to a gas prone reservoir in the Sawan area, Southern Indus Basin, Pakistan. In this particular study, model-based and sparse-spike inversion algorithms are successfully applied on 3D seismic and wireline log data to predict reservoir character in the Lower Goru Formation (C-sand interval). Our results suggest that model-based post-stack seismic inversion provides more reasonable estimates (i.e. returning detailed spatial variations) for acoustic impedance and porosity when compared to sparse-spike inversion algorithms. The calibration of these estimates with petrophysical data from wireline log data indicates an appropriate agreement amongst them. Importantly, the results obtained in our case study can be applied to similar basins in Asia with 'tight' oil and 'tight' gas filling sand-shale intercalations with different thickness and areal distributions.