Cryopreservation of partially dried embryonic axes represents the primary approach for long-term preservation of recalcitrant seeds. However, while many seed traits and responses relate to either pre- or post-dispersal climate, little is known about whether axis responses to cryopreservation relate to climate. For 13 Quercus species from subalpine, subtropical and temperate forests in China, we tested the hypothesis that axis responses to desiccation and cold stress co-vary and relate to climate. There were strong relationships between axis desiccation sensitivity, responses to cryopreservation and climate. Subalpine oak axes were highly desiccation-sensitive, but had high survival of freezing, even at high water contents. Temperate species were less desiccation-sensitive. However, only those from the coldest locations survived freezing when dried to lower water contents. While subtropical species had a similarly high level of desiccation-sensitivity as subalpine species, most species died under all cryo-exposure conditions. Our findings underscore the essential role of climate in shaping diverse, cold stress mitigation strategies among different Quercus groups. The paradoxical cryopreservation tolerance of highly desiccation-sensitive subalpine species, likely traits acquired during their shift to colder habitats since the mid-Miocene Himalaya-Hengduan uplift, reveals broader cold stress tolerance strategies in Quercus than previously reported, suggesting this group is suitable for long-term storage. For temperate and subtropical species, surviving cryo-exposure represented a balance between the risk of ice crystal formation and desiccation. However, the limited survival of subtropical species, many of which are threatened, highlights the need for further research to develop long-term conservation strategies.

Standish, R.J., Gove, A.D., Grigg, A.H., & Daws, M.I. (2021) Beyond species richness and community composition: Using plant functional diversity to measure restoration success in jarrah forest. Applied Vegetation Science, 24(3), e12607. https://doi.org/10.1111/avsc.12607 Due to an error in the species richness variable in the space-for-time dataset, the first panel of Figures 3, 5 and 6, and Table 3, are incorrect. The corrections appear below. These new results show a significant decline in species richness with both restoration age (Figure 3; Table 3) and with time since fire (Figure 5; Table 3). Additionally, species richness of restored jarrah forest at 25 years of age was significantly lower than that observed in reference forest (Figure 6). We apologise for this error. Appendix S1. Number of plots in the repeated-measures dataset, by age in years since the onset of restoration (n = 810). Appendix S2. Estimated regression parameters, standard errors, t values and p values for the linear mixed effects models of the repeatedmeasures dataset presented in Table 2. Appendix S3. Estimated regression parameters, standard errors, t values and p values for the linear models of the space-for-time dataset presented in Table 3. Appendix S4. Results of linear models of comparison of forest reference (Ref) and restored forest at 25 years of age (Res) presented in Figure 6. Appendix S5. ANOSIM R values for pairwise comparisons using repeated-measures dataset plotted on Figure 7. Appendix S6. Correlation between means species richness (SR) and means of four functional diversity indices (a–d) for restored forest aged 1–25 years (n = 14 plots) and forest reference (n = 1 plot). Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.

Quantitative ‘completion criteria’ agreed between mining companies and regulatory authorities are typically used to assess restoration outcomes. Completion criteria provide the basis for determining whether mining companies have fully met their obligations for site restoration. Relationships among potentially conflicting criteria, particularly around site productivity (e.g., timber production), the return of biodiversity, long-term ecosystem trajectories and other ecosystem services remain poorly understood during the development of mine restoration. For the jarrah forest of southwest Australia, we manipulated site productivity in post bauxite mine restoration by establishing four initial Eucalyptus marginata (jarrah) tree stocking rates in factorial combination with seeding a range of large N2-fixing understorey legume species. We measured jarrah growth rates over the 32-year duration of the experiment, soil-N concentrations at 3 and 32 years-of-age and understorey plant species richness and cover at 15 and 32 years-of-age. Stand basal area over bark (BA) increased with increasing tree stocking rates. However, there was a significant negative effect of increasing stand BA on understorey plant cover and species richness. These negative effects were still significant 32 years after the commencement of the experiment. Seeding large understorey legumes increased total soil-N. However, this did not increase tree growth. Rather, seeding large legumes reduced tree survival and diameter at breast height, and reduced understorey species richness, even though the applied seed mix in the large legume treatment contained 14 more species compared with the control. Our data highlight trade-offs between individual aspects of restoration success, such as tree stocking rates and understorey species richness. Further these results suggest reducing site productivity, by the judicious use of large understorey legumes and establishing low tree stocking rates, may facilitate the return of diverse vegetation communities. Finally, it is important to recognise that when restoration success is viewed through the lens of one-dimensional metrics such as completion criteria, restoration may function as a ‘zero-sum game’ in which a gain for one outcome (e.g., N2-fixation) may result in a loss to one or more other outcomes (e.g., tree growth and species richness).

Traits enabling seeds to survive post-dispersal desiccation and subsequently germinate are important aspects of plant regeneration for species with desiccation-sensitive seeds. However, how desiccation and germination-related traits co-vary and relate to patterns of climate variation are unknown. We investigated physiological traits related to desiccation and germination of desiccation-sensitive seeds from 19 Quercus species, which typically dominate subalpine, subtropical and temperate forests in China. The results demonstrate a strong relationship between climate and seed traits consistent with a hypothesis of minimizing seed death from desiccation. Seeds of subalpine species were most desiccation sensitive and died fastest when dried. These species avoided drought and cold by germinating rapidly. Subtropical and temperate oaks had more variable strategies to minimize the risk of mortality reflecting a continuum between traits that facilitate rapid germination (with the risk of rapid desiccation) and slow germination (and slow desiccation). Across the Quercus species, the relative level of seed desiccation sensitivity, which we predicted to be important for reducing the risk of drying related mortality, was independent of climate. For desiccation-sensitive seeds this suggests a more diverse range of strategies for minimizing desiccation risk than reported previously.

Aims Fertiliser is often used to kick-start ecological restoration despite growing evidence of the potentially negative impacts on plant diversity. Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest species growing on nutrient (especially phosphorus) impoverished soils in southwestern Australia have a suite of adaptations for phosphorus (P) acquisition, including the formation of cluster roots, and associations with mycorrhizal fungi. Here we investigated how escalating P supply, along with a stoichiometric adjustment of nitrogen (N) supply, impacted the growth and nutrition of a wide range of jarrah forest seedlings. Methods In a pot experiment, we measured seedling biomass and nutritional responses of 12 jarrah forest species to a gradient of P supply in relation to N supply, and for the mycorrhizal species, inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Results Three cluster-root forming species did not respond to increasing P, probably because they were reliant on seed P. Generally, mycorrhizal species showed a positive biomass response to increasing P when N was available. Mycorrhizas benefited seedling growth at low P (9 mg P added per kg of jarrah forest soil) when N was also available, and were parasitic to seedling growth at high P (243 mg P/ kg soil) without additional N. Conclusions These results highlight importance of P and N supply in determining the nature of the symbiosis between plants and mycorrhizal fungi. Since P supply has the potential to reduce plant growth, for a range of species, our results suggest careful consideration of fertiliser amounts for ecological restoration of ecosystems adapted to nutrient poor soils.

Despite nutrient enrichment having widely reported negative impacts on biodiversity, fertilizer is routinely applied in post mining restoration to enhance plant growth and establishment. Focusing on surface mine restoration (predominately bauxite and mineral sands), we outline the long-term negative impacts of fertilizer, particularly phosphorus fertilizer, on plant community composition, species richness, fire fuel loads, and belowground impacts on nutrient-cycling. We draw from extensive research in south-western Australia and further afield, noting the geographical coincidence of surface mining, phosphorus impoverished soil and high plant biodiversity. We highlight the trade-offs between rapid plant-growth under fertilisation and the longer-term effects on plant communities and diversity. We note that the initial growth benefits of fertilisation may not persist in water-limited environments: growth of unfertilised forests can eventually match that of fertilised forest, throwing doubt on the premise that fertilisation is necessary at all.

Many plant species from regions with ancient, highly-weathered nutrient-depleted soils have specialised adaptations for acquiring P and are sensitive to excess P-supply. Mycorrhizal associations may regulate P-uptake at high external P-concentrations, potentially reducing P-toxicity. We predicted that excess P-application will negatively impact species from the nutrient-depleted jarrah forest of Western Australia and that mycorrhizal inoculation will reduce P-toxicity by regulating P-uptake. For seedlings of the N 2 -fixing legume Acacia celastrifolia and the tree species Eucalyptus marginata , we measured growth at P-concentrations of 0 to 90 mg kg −1 soil and in relation to inoculation with the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF) Rhizophagus irregularis . Non-inoculated A . celastrifolia maintained leaf P-concentrations at <2 mg g −1 dry mass (DM) across the range of external P-concentrations. However, for non-inoculated E . marginata , as external P-concentrations increased leaf P also increased, reaching >9 mg g −1 DM at 30 mg P kg −1 soil. A . celastrifolia DM increased with increasing external P-concentrations, while E . marginata DM was maximal at 15 mg P kg −1 soil, declining at higher external P concentrations. Neither DM nor leaf P of A . celastrifolia were affected by inoculation with AMF. For E . marginata , even at 90 mg P kg −1 soil, inoculation with AMF resulted in leaf P remaining <1 mg g −1 DM, and DM being maintained. These data strengthen the evidence base that AMF may not only facilitate P-uptake at low external P-concentrations, but are also important for moderating P-uptake at elevated external P-concentrations and maintaining plant P concentrations within a relatively narrow concentration range.

The application of fertiliser, to both replace nutrients lost during mining and facilitate rapid vegetation re-establishment, is viewed as a key step in the restoration of post-mining landscapes. However, few studies have examined the long-term effects of a single initial fertiliser application on tree growth in restored sites. We report on a large-scale, fully replicated study that investigated the effect of an initial N and P fertiliser application (0, 80 and 120 kg ha−1 elemental N and P) on sites restored after bauxite mining. Growth of the two main jarrah forest tree species (jarrah - Eucalyptus marginata and marri - Corymbia calophylla) was monitored 9 and 20 years after the completion of restoration. After 20 years, soil NO3− and NH4+ were unaffected by N-application, although soil Colwell-P concentrations remained elevated following P-application. N-application had no effect on marri growth at either time interval, but increased jarrah diameter at breast height over bark (DBHOB), height and stand basal area at 9 years and DBHOB at 20 years. Applied-P increased height and DBHOB of jarrah after 9 years, but these effects did not continue. In contrast, applied-P benefitted marri growth (DBHOB and stand basal area) at both 9 and 20 years. Tree growth rates in the fertilised treatments declined more between the two-time intervals (0 – 9 years and 9 – 20 years) than the unfertilised plots, particularly for jarrah, suggesting that resource limits were reached more rapidly in the fertilised treatments. Further, for both N and P there was no additional benefit from application rates above 80 kg ha−1. These results demonstrate that while fertiliser addition may benefit initial growth in restored jarrah forest, the effects reduce with restoration age and may have limited practical benefit after 20 years.

Forestry science and practice suggests thinning and fertiliser increase the growth rates of individual trees. In a recent paper reporting on a long-term experiment in the Northern Jarrah Forest, Bhandari et al. (2021) found positive effects of both thinning and fertilisation, and suggested these management practices will result in a shorter return interval for large trees within the population, thereby providing significant benefits at an ecosystem scale. We argue that whereas thinning alone may be beneficial, the application of fertiliser to native ecosystems within the South West Australian Floristic Region requires caution due to impacts on understorey plant diversity. Not only are soils in this region generally deeply-weathered and highly nutrient-deficient, but the evolution of a suite of adaptations for nutrient-acquisition is implicated in both speciation and the maintenance of plant species diversity. Furthermore, long-term experiments in restored jarrah forest indicate that fertiliser both reduces species diversity and increases fine fuel loads. Therefore thinning, but not fertiliser application, is an appropriate management strategy to improve tree growth in this global biodiversity hotspot.

Aim: The importance of restoring ecosystem functions to native systems that have been degraded, damaged or destroyed is increasingly recognised. Yet few studies have measured the effect of restoration efforts on ecosystem functioning or the functional diversity (FD) that underpins it. Here we assessed change in FD of restored assemblages one to 25 years after the onset of post-mine restoration. Location: Northern Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata Donn ex Sm.) Forest bioregion of southwestern Australia. Methods: Functional richness, evenness, divergence and dispersion were derived from five plant functional traits relevant to community reassembly. Effects of three explanatory variables (i.e. age, year restoration was initiated, and time since fire) on six response variables (i.e. four FD indices, species richness, and compositional similarity to nearby reference forest) were analysed using linear mixed models for a data set with repeated measures of plots through time (n = 810 plots), and linear models for a subset of one-time measures of different aged assemblages (i.e. space-for-time approach; n = 490 plots). Results: Functional evenness and functional dispersion increased with age, while functional divergence and functional richness decreased with age. Functional dispersion increased with time since fire, while functional richness decreased with time since fire. Species richness decreased with age, but at 25 years, species richness was comparable to that observed in reference forest. In contrast, similarity showed no relationship with age of restored forest, and at 25 years, similarity of restored forest to reference was low compared with similarity of reference forest to itself. Three of four FD indices had not reached those of reference jarrah forest 25 years after restoration had been initiated. Conclusions: Reassembly of FD suggests importance of environmental filtering and high functional redundancy. A longer time frame may be needed to assess FD of restored assemblages, and in the meantime, species richness is not an adequate surrogate of FD.

Nutrient enrichment can negatively affect natural plant communities and result in the loss of species diversity and productivity. Despite this, fertiliser (especially phosphorus) is typically applied to restore highly biodiverse communities. Long-term effects of nutrient addition to restored plant communities, particularly those adapted to inherently low nutrient soils, have received little attention. We report results of a large-scale 20-year field experiment established in West Australian jarrah forest restored after bauxite mining Three P-application rates were applied (0, 80 and 120 kg ha- 1) once at the beginning of the experiment, and plant communities monitored after 1, 6, 13 and 20 years. One year after the onset of restoration, native plant species richness and plant density was highest at 80 and 120 kg P ha- 1. Subsequently, native species richness, plant density, and the richness and density of seeder and slow-growing resprouter species were highest without fertilisation, establishing the negative impact of P enrichment on plant community and ecosystem development in P impoverished soils. Total plant cover was similar for all P treatments across the chronosequence which, when combined with higher stem densities at zero P, suggests zero P favoured smaller, slower growing species. Applied-P initially favoured weeds and ephemerals and, while these species declined over time, other species were lost from these plots. The similarity of the restored communities to unmined reference jarrah forest increased over time and was consistently highest at in the absence of P fertiliser. Jarrah forest restoration is assumed to follow the initial floristic model of plant succession. However, we question this assumption and instead suggest that successional outcomes are contingent on P fertilisation rather than initial floristics per se. Applied P retarded recruitment of resprouter species that were present at zero P, debunking the assumption under IFM that these species do not disperse to restored areas. Consequently, based on the most comprehensive long-term study of P-fertilisation in the context of restoration of P-impoverished ecosystems yet reported, we propose that P limitation is important for the recreation of species diversity in inherently P impoverished forests. These results highlight the necessity of longterm experiments for understanding forest successional dynamics and implications for restoration practices.

We introduce the AusTraits database - a compilation of measurements of plant traits for taxa in the Australian flora (hereafter AusTraits). AusTraits synthesises data on 375 traits across 29230 taxa from field campaigns, published literature, taxonomic monographs, and individual taxa descriptions. Traits vary in scope from physiological measures of performance (e.g. photosynthetic gas exchange, water-use efficiency) to morphological parameters (e.g. leaf area, seed mass, plant height) which link to aspects of ecological variation. AusTraits contains curated and harmonised individual-, species- and genus-level observations coupled to, where available, contextual information on site properties. This data descriptor provides information on version 2.1.0 of AusTraits which contains data for 937243 trait-by-taxa combinations. We envision AusTraits as an ongoing collaborative initiative for easily archiving and sharing trait data to increase our collective understanding of the Australian flora. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

Fertiliser application to restore nutrients lost in the mining process and facilitate early plant establishment and growth is a key step in the restoration of sites disturbed by mining. However, few studies have investigated the effects of different fertiliser types and application methods on mine restoration outcomes, especially in highly biodiverse ecosystems such as the jarrah forest. This forest is a unique, floristically diverse landscape with species adapted to growth on a highly weathered phosphorus impoverished Ferralsol. In this study we investigated the effect of fertiliser type (rock phosphate, single superphosphate, and an NPK fertiliser), application method (top-dressed versus incorporated), and the timing of application (winter vs. summer) on the trajectory of jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest restoration following bauxite mining compared to an unfertilised control. All fertilised soil had elevated Colwell-P concentrations (bar rock phosphate) and had considerably less N than found in the native forest, even after N fertilisation. Fertiliser incorporation resulted in a more even distribution of P down the soil profile and increased overall plant growth (as assessed by percentage cover) compared with either top-dressed fertiliser application and no fertiliser, potentially offering better erosion control. In contrast, native species richness was highest in the zero fertiliser and NPK treatments and lowest in the phosphorus incorporation treatments. On average, unfertilised plots had 10 more native species per plot than those fertilised with P only. Fertiliser application also reduced the abundance and cover of Bossiaea ornata and Lomandra spp., both of which are small slow-growing understorey taxa. In contrast, the legume Acacia celastrifolia exhibited a vigorous growth response to fertiliser, with growth being greatest when P (either rock phosphate or SSP) was incorporated. These data suggest that P fertiliser incorporation is a potential strategy to both maximise early plant growth and cover and increase the efficiency of P application. However, if the goal of restoration is to maximise diversity then moderation in P application and using fertilisers that also contain N and K may be appropriate.

Nutrient enrichment can result in long-term negative impacts on a range of native and semi-native plant communities worldwide.Despite this knowledge, fertiliser application is generally viewed as a necessary step in re-establishing native plant communities in post-mining restoration.However, long-term effects of nutrient addition to restored plant communities, particularly in native ecosystems that are adapted to inherently low-nutrient soils, have received little attention.Here we report results of two experiments run for 15 and 20 years, respectively, to investigate the effect of applied P fertiliser on responses of Eucalyptus marginata (jarrah) forest re-sprouter understorey species in sites restored after bauxite mining in Western Australia.Re-sprouter species are abundant in unmined forest but are under-represented in restored sites.At the end of the two experiments (i.e. after 15 and 20 years), the abundance of three groups of re-sprouter understorey species was reduced, compared with the zero-fertiliser treatment, when P fertiliser was applied at rates from 20 to 120 kg P ha -1 .In both experiments, the cover associated with P responsive legumes increased with increasing P application rates.This result suggests that when fertiliser is applied, slowgrowing re-sprouter species are susceptible to being outcompeted by more vigorous understorey species.Consequently, if the goal of restoration is to re-establish a diverse plant community, then minimising fertiliser application rates may be appropriate.

Many Australian native plants from regions with ancient, highly weathered soils have specialised adaptations for acquiring phosphorus (P) and can exhibit negative effects of excess P supply on growth and survival. Despite this, fertiliser (including P) is routinely applied in post-mining and other restoration schemes. In this study we investigated the effect of a range of applied P on the growth and tissue P concentrations for six woody species from the Great Western Woodlands (GWW) of Western Australia – a region that it not only biodiverse, but that has experienced significant levels of mining related activities. Our data from a pot-based experiment show that all six species exhibited greater growth with increased P application up to 15 mg kg sand–1. However, at P concentrations in excess of 15 mg kg–1, dry mass accumulation did not increase further for three of the species tested. For the other three species, dry mass accumulation declined as the P concentration increased above 15 mg kg–1. For all of the study species, root and shoot P concentrations increased as the concentration of applied P increased. The internal shoot P concentration, at which dry matter accumulation either plateaued or started to decline, was in the range 1.95 to 3.2 mg P g–1 dry matter. This was ~2–4 times the concentration found in natural vegetation. These data suggest that in a restoration context, there is a potential risk that, excess P application may decrease plant growth rates for some species. Consequently, the addition of fertiliser to restored sites may have unpredictable impacts on the plant community by directly reducing the growth of some species but increasing the growth of others. We suggest that careful consideration should be given to designing appropriate fertiliser regimes for land restoration schemes in ancient P deplete landscapes to avoid the risk that fertiliser addition has the unwanted outcome of decreasing growth and survival of the target native species and increasing the abundance of unwanted weeds or aggressive pioneer species.

Restoring nutrients lost in the mining process and re-establishing nutrient-cycling are often key goals of mine restoration. One common strategy to facilitate these goals is to seed fast-growing legumes combined with one application of P-fertiliser to maximise legume growth and increase soil-N. However, the longer term effects of this strategy have received little attention. Here we report the results of a 15-year-old experiment that was established to test the effects of fertiliser-P application and seeding large understorey legumes, both singly and in combination, on jarrah forest restoration after bauxite mining. Fifteen years after the establishment of this experiment, the majority of the seeded legumes had senesced, with total legume cover having declined significantly compared with results of the same experiment at 5-years-of-age. Yet, despite the legumes having senesced there were still negative effects of both large legumes and P-fertiliser on species richness and abundance of non-leguminous understorey species. These negative effects may be mediated by the persistent effects of legume competition that was evident at 5 years and the accumulation of significant quantities of leaf litter and fine woody debris in the large legume x P-addition treatments. Compared with the 0 kg P ha(-1) treatment, application of 20 kg P ha(-1) significantly increased jarrah tree growth, but there was no additional benefit of 80 kg P ha(-1). These data suggest that moderation of P-fertiliser and large under-storey legumes could maximise understorey cover, tree growth and understorey species richness, and therefore simultaneously address multiple key restoration goals.

Fertilisers supply essential nutrients lacking in post-mining substrates in nearly all terrestrial rehabilitation schemes.Regulators typically require the rapid revegetation of post-mining lands as an indicator of early rehabilitation success, mapping to perceived pathways of successful ecosystem recovery.However, we will show how this approach can lead to poorer outcomes in terms of vegetation composition and potentially, long-term issues in ecosystem biogeochemistry.Many mines exist in remote areas and on highly weathered, ancient, nutrient poor soils.Examples of these are the Fynbos of South Africa, the western and northern forests of Australia, the Campos rupestres of South America, and many tropical areas.Typically, restoration requirements in these areas require the return of a native vegetation community that existed prior to mining.This is particularly common for surface strip mining where large areas of land are cleared of vegetation annually.In this paper, we show how, where, and why over-fertilisation can occur.Based on examples from western and northern Australia, we demonstrate that the application of phosphoruscontaining fertilisers to these nutrient depleted soils can result in long-term elevated soil phosphorus, with species-specific negative impacts on plant health and growth.We show the rehabilitation benefits that can be gained by judicious fertilisation in terms of vegetation community structure and ecosystem development.Finally, to assess where these findings may have wider applicability, we identify further global regions with nutrient depleted soils, high plant diversity, and current or prospective strip mining operations.

Directional climate change can potentially cause a nested pattern of species occurrences as species move or go extinct. That is, species-poor communities may become a nested subset of species-rich communities. There is a precedent for understanding these patterns in the context of historical climate change but few researchers have studied these patterns in the context of recent changes to climate. Here we show the value of nestedness analyses for understanding plant community responses to reduced annual rainfall using data on seedling establishment in restored jarrah forest between the years of 1992 and 2010. Specifically, we recorded the annual seedling establishment of species assemblages in plots 15 months after restoration. We tested to what extent jarrah-forest assemblages that established in low (< 1000 mm) rainfall years were nested within assemblages that established in years of moderate (1000-1200 mm) and high (> 1200 mm) rainfall, and whether assemblages established following lower standard restoration practice were nested subsets of those following higher standard practices. We also tested how both types of nestedness patterns varied among trait groups defined by status (i.e., native or non-native), life-form and seed size. We found high support for species and trait assemblages that established in dry years being a nested subset of assemblages that established in years of moderate rainfall, and consistently low support for nestedness of high in low, and moderate in low, rainfall years. Nestedness patterns associated with restoration practice were as we predicted. Recruitment failure in low rainfall years was the most parsimonious explanation for nestedness patterns associated with rainfall (i.e., selective environmental tolerance). Nestedness patterns associated with restoration practice were explained by differential seed dispersal of species via topsoil and their tolerance of inferior restoration practice. Taken together, we demonstrate the application of the nestedness approach for understanding community responses to climate change in a restoration context. Indeed, generalising species responses to climate change by linking these to ecological processes and traits will help to meet the current global demand for forest restoration. Therefore, we anticipate our findings will interest practitioners working to restore the world's forests under climate change.

Recruitment from seeds is among the most vulnerable stage for plants as global temperatures change. While germination is the means by which the vast majority of the world's flora regenerate naturally, a framework for accurately predicting which species are at greatest risk of germination failure during environmental perturbation is lacking. Taking a physiological approach, we assess how one family, the Cactaceae, may respond to global temperature change based on the thermal buffering capacity of the germination phenotype. We selected 55 cactus species from the Americas, all geo-referenced seed collections, reflecting the broad environmental envelope of the family across 70 degrees of latitude and 3700m of altitude. We then generated empirical data of the thermal germination response from which we estimated the minimum (T-b), optimum (T-o) and ceiling (T-c) temperature for germination and the thermal time ((50)) for each species based on the linearity of germination rate with temperature. Species with the highest T-b and lowest T-c germinated fastest, and the interspecific sensitivity of the germination rate to temperature, as assessed through (50), varied tenfold. A left-skewed asymmetry in the germination rate with temperature was relatively common but the unimodal pattern typical of crop species failed for nearly half of the species due to insensitivity to temperature change at T-o. For 32 fully characterized species, seed thermal parameters correlated strongly with the mean temperature of the wettest quarter of the seed collection sites. By projecting the mean temperature of the wettest quarter under two climate change scenarios, we predict under the least conservative scenario (+3.7 degrees C) that 25% of cactus species will have reduced germination performance, whilst the remainder will have an efficiency gain, by the end of the 21st century.

Remotely-sensed imagery from Landsat dating back to 1972 is now available from the United States Geological Survey free-of-charge as a level 1 terrain corrected product. However, to take full advantage of the time series requires that the earlier multispectral scanner (MSS) imagery be integrated with the later thematic mapper (TM), enhanced thematic mapper (ETM+) and operational land imager (OLI) imagery. Here we describe a simple, generic approach to processing Landsat scenes to develop a standardised time series of leaf area index, a key biophysical attribute of forests, for a study region in the northern jarrah forest of south-western Australia. The five-step approach utilised the main features in near infra-red (NIR)-red space of a dark point, soil line and a radiating set of ratio index isolines. Firstly, digital numbers were converted to top of atmosphere reflectance. Secondly, the red and NIR bands of all scenes were atmospheric corrected using long-established deep water supply reservoirs within the study region as invariant ‘dark objects’. Thirdly, adjustment of the NIR band such that the soil line was consistently located on the 1:1 line in NIR-red space across scenes both from the same sensor and from different sensors, taking advantage of a >40 year record of bauxite mining operations to identify pseudo-invariant bare-ground targets. Fourthly, an inter-sensor calibration of spectral vegetation indices (SVIs) to ensure that SVI isolines from different sensors were consistent. Finally, application of a relationship between SVIs and an extensive multi-year dataset of ground-based LAI measurements to generate a time-series of leaf area index (LAI). We demonstrate a simple application of the LAI time-series by investigating the relationship between rainfall, forest LAI as affected by different land use activities, and streamflow in the study region in the south west of Australia. The time-series could be used to improve prediction and modeling of hydrological changes in the region resulting from changes in catchment forest cover.