Recent improvements in contemporary electronics have been starved of further revolutions to accomplish long-running, large-power, and high-energy storage devices. Compare to traditional batteries, the supercapacitor has increased substantial attention because of its rapid charging/discharging (CDg) speed, high energy and power density and long-standing cycling stability. Herein, some recently emerging carbon-based electrode materials are discussed, together with covalent organic frameworks, metal–organic frameworks, metal nitrides, black phosphorus, MXenes, LaMnO3, TiO2, RbAg4I5, and others to fabricate for higher electrical conductivity electrodes flexible textile supercapacitors, and larger specific surface area. However, difficulties still remain in power density, mechanical flexibility, and cycling life. Fabricated materials can be obtained with high thermal stability, good electroconductivity, and high specific capacitance where carbon materials are employed with conducting polymers. Apart from this, several aqueous and nonaqueous electrolytes have been found to overcome traditional hydrolysis concerns. Lastly, the challenges and opportunities with the future outlook of supercapacitor developments are summarized which have synergistic effect between electrolytes and electrodes.

Recent progress in metamaterial nanostructures and their potential applications have been gained the intense attention of many researchers in the scientific and academic community. The advanced structural and morphological modification in nanoscopic substances have opened a new window to boost up catalytic performance in optoelectronic devices and multicomponent systems. In this regard, a wider class of 2D metamaterials basically graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) was aimed to address under the proposed chapter. The hybrid class of carbon nitrides doped with desired metals/elements are been focused on by giving a systematic preparation, characterizations, and their significant role for magnificent supercapacitors. The carbon-based doped 2D materials are gathered and their characteristics physicochemical activities are discussed to report superior catalytic performances by considering experimental findings/reports. The transitional and alkali metal-doped carbon nitride materials are explained along with proper synthetic routes, structural analysis, and supercapacitor applications in the present scenario. The versatile uses of these smart materials have already been established as a futuristic material for energy storage and conversations in the field of material science and technologies due to their optimal band gap, mechanical, thermal strength, and chemical stability. The elemental compositions and surface modification in atomic layered structures of graphitic carbon nitrides were carried out via different physicochemical processes for multiple uses and therefore we are going to highlight a wider overview including surface, structural, optical, and catalytic aspects toward supercapacitor applications.

Currently, the demand of energy is being increased day-by-day and because of this, the energy crisis has been arisen. Thus, the evolution of new energy sources is being changed with every day, along with various energy-storing techniques, such as fuel cells, solar cells, rechargeable batteries, and capacitors. In this context, the supercapacitors have been emerged having potential for developing advances in energy storage where these are directed by the same basic mathematics and science as conventional capacitors. They are differing in terms of higher surface area and thinner dielectrics that leads to greater capacitances than those of conventional capacitors. These are recognized for their high efficiency in energy, power, and long life-cycle in the advancement of energy storage devices such as electrical vehicles and wearable or portable electronic products. So, a rapid growth has been seen in the research and development of energy storage devices that yield a noteworthy number of electrochemically active compounds or materials. Such capacitors with excellent electrochemical possessions, ecofriendly, safety, and environmental kindliness have come to the forefront in recent years. Therefore, the supercapacitors have become an emerging power solution, and being utilizing in a number of applications. In this context, this chapter focuses on the general introduction, mechanism, and development in the field of supercapacitor.

Now days the nanotechnology has become essential part of science, and interest of scientists is being increased day by day due to their application in medicinal or material fields. Nanomaterials have been fabricated for different purposes, and there have been a variety of nanoparticles like metallic, polymeric and protein nanoparticles. Among these, protein nanoparticles have been widely used in drug delivery (DD) system because of their good biocompatibility, easy handling and preparation. Such nanoparticles physically approach to modify and improve the pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic possessions of different kind of drug moieties. Protein nanoparticles are being used in vivo analysis to shield the drug molecule in the complete flow, prohibit the access of the drug to the targeted sites, and for delivering the drug with a controlled and sustained rate. In this chapter, we have focused the DD using protein nanoparticles, their preparation methods and current research in the same field.

The soy protein is an economical, plant-derived polymer that can be tailored into different dimensions or shapes. The scope of tunability and an alternative for toxic synthetic polymers make soy protein a promising biomaterial for biomedical applications. This chapter deals with general aspects of soy protein structure and its importance in brief. The state of art fabrication methods used in the various forms includes films, hydrogels, nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, nanofibers, and nanocomposites, The surface, mechanical, and biodegradability properties are responsible for achieving the biomedical applications were discussed. The role of soy protein in drug delivery systems, wound dressings, and tissue engineering is elaborated in the biomedical applications section.

Protein-based biopolymers (PBB) are available in ample amounts with rewarding biocompatibility, biodegradability, processability, and combination possibilities. The pollution-free approach made it a leading material in many fields including food packaging. PBB can be obtained from plants and animals, and also derived from microorganisms. The starting materials used to produce PBB are benign, easily available, cost-effective, and mostly from Agri industrial waste. This introductory chapter of PBB summerized the research on the origin and type of PBB and their applications in food packaging, soil strengthening, protein purification, tissue engineering, surface engineering, recombinant protein polymers, drug delivery, healthcare biomedical, bio-nanocomposites, and coating industries. Films and coatings of PBB have excellent gas barrier properties and satisfactory mechanical properties. Currently, PBB or PBB nanoparticles are used for the production of vaccines which can be used to protect from COVID-19, a global crisis. Also, outline some challenges which can be achieved shortly.

The rapid, robust, scalable and non-hazardous sonochemical approach for in situ reduction and direct functionalization of graphene oxide has been developed for non-toxic biomedical applications. The graphene oxide (GrO) was directly functionalized with tryptamine (TA) without using any hazardous acylating and coupling reagents. The reaction was completed within 20min. An impact of ultrasound was inferred for a direct functionalization with other conventional methods. The evolved electronic states were confirmed with near edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS). The direct covalent functionalization and formation of f-(TA) GrO was proven with FTIR, 13C solid state NMR, XPS, XRD, Raman' HRTEM, AFM and TGA. The total percentage weight loss in TGA confirms an enhanced thermal stability of f-(TA) GrO. The f-(TA) GrO was further explored for an investigation of in vitro antimicrobial activity to ensure the health and environmental safety. An outstanding antibacterial activity of f-(TA) GrO was found against gram positive Staphylococcus aureus at MIC 128mgmL-1. It confirms a suitability of f-(TA) GrO for thermally stable antibacterial coating. The f-(TA) GrO showed 39.14-48.9% antioxidant activities, evaluated with 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical assay. The inherent cytotoxicity of f-(TA) GrO was evaluated with SRB assay to living cells, MCF-7 and Vero. The estimated cell viabilities were >80% upon addition of f-(TA) GrO over a wide concentration range of 10-80μgmL-1. The high cytocompatibility of f-(TA) GrO confirms the low toxicity and an excellent biocompatibility. The morphological effect on Vero cell line, evidently confirmed the biocompatibility of f-(TA) GrO. Therefore, f-(TA) GrO was emerged as an advanced functional biomaterial for thermal and biomedical applications.

The kinetically active two dimensional surface of graphene oxide (GrO) plays an important role in understanding the chemistry of graphene. The GrO is comprises of carbon and oxygen while the f-(6-AIND) GrO contains nitrogen along with carbon and oxygen. The prominent thermal instability of GrO is widely explored. However, due to the synergistic impact of their constituting elements, the thermal and electrochemical stability of f-(6-AIND) GrO enhances after N-doping with nitrogen containing heterocycles like 6-Aminoindazole. Hence it is essential to probe the mutual impact of various functionalities present over the surface of GrO, to understand the mechanism of direct functionalization of GrO with thermal and electrochemical stabilities. Therefore, the decomposition kinetics of discrete atomic domains and their effect on thermal stability of f-(6-AIND) GrO was revealed with spectroscopic analysis and thermal assessment. Additionally, the mechanism of thermal transformation is precisely developed to demonstrate the impact of heat on weight loss due to the mass transfer. Likewise, the electrochemical properties can be well understood with the help of mechanism of electrochemical activity and cyclic voltammetry experiments. Also, the f-(6-AIND) GrO is confirmed with the help of various surface analysis techniques like FTIR, EDS, HR-XPS, HR-TEM, CV, SAED, TGA, DSC and UV-vis. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Sonochemical waves as mechanochemical energy was employed to exfoliate graphite oxide and functionalized graphene oxide (GrO), through a reaction of solvent and accountable for top-down and bottom-up approach respectively. The in situ formation of ester intermediate was inferred and a polymeric surface of GrO was further functionalized with 6-Aminoindazole (6-AIND) through sonochemical nucleophilic substitution reaction. As compared to conventional method the effect of ultrasound was verified for the direct functionalization of GrO. The conventional hazardous acylation step for functionalization of GrO was deleted in ultrasound assisted formation of f-(6-AIND) GrO nanocomposite, prepared by stereoselective exploitation of carboxyl groups at edges of GrO. The characterization has ascertained a covalent attachment of 6-AIND onto GrO surface with ATR-FTIR, XPS, SSNMR, TGA, DSC, XRD, AFM, RAMAN, EDX, SEM, BET and elemental analyzer. A weight loss in TGA depicts enhanced thermal stability of f-(6-AIND) GrO and a thermally sensitive behavior. The f-(6-AIND) GrO was studied for in vitro antimicrobial activity to ensure health and environmental safety. Antibacterial activity was identified against human pathogenic gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus; ATCC 25923) and gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli; ATCC 25922). The antifungal activity was observed against Candida albicans (ATCC 10231).