Gentrification occurs when capital flows into rural areas through various channels, changing land use. At the beginning of this process, the potential income capitalised in farmland prices becomes detached from the current net return, creating a rent gap. The rent gap in the context of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) can lead to different land use scenarios that affect the sustainable development of rural areas in a number of ways. In effect, farmers can: increase the efficiency of input use; dispose of low-productivity assets and allow new capital to flow in; accept inefficient input use in agriculture while becoming ‘bi-professional’. The main objective of this article is to answer the question of which of the above scenarios is the most likely, and to discuss their consequences for sustainable development. The results indicate that the rent gap induces farmers to reduce input-oriented efficiency in farming while retaining low-productivity assets.

This study explores whether participation in short food supply chains (SFSCs) reduces perception gaps and cognitive biases in farmers' evaluation of financial performance in post-pandemic conditions. Research design and methods: survey data from 76 SFSC and 95 non-SFSC-farms in Poland were compared with actual data from the FADN system to assess accuracy in estimating production, income, and cost changes. Findings:SFSC farmers demonstrated more accurate and optimistic assessments of economic indicators, particularly for production and income, compared to non-SFSC peers. Differences were statistically significant, suggesting better perception and reduced bias. Implications and recommendations: encouraging SFSC participation and offering training in accounting and financial literacy may help farmers make more informed decisions and reduce cognitive distortions. Contribution and value added: by applying behavioural economics, Sustainable Systems Theory, and Social-Ecological Systems Theory, the study highlights SFSCs as tools for increasing farmers' adaptive capacity, market awareness, and resilience in uncertain conditions.

The aim of the study is to indicate perceived resilience of Polish farms during the COVID-19 pandemic and post-pandemic crisis. Hence, one of our research question is: do farmers involved in short food supply chains perceive their resilience to external shocks higher than others? Our study is embedded in the resilience theory and framework with three resilience capacities: robustness, adaptability and transformability. We interviewed (using semi-structured questionnaire) a group of 199 small- and medium-scale farms in Poland. We used statistical methods to determine the differences between farms involved in SFSCs (SFSC-farms) and not involved (non-SFSC-farms). The analysis reveals a higher total perceived resilience of farms involved in short food supply chains, especially in the case of farms which sell 15–50

Carbon farming (CF) is an approach to agricultural production that aims to increase soil organic carbon. The main objective of this article was to investigate the intentions of Serbian farmers to implement CF practices based on an extended model of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). The research sample consisted of cereal farmers from northern Serbia. The analysis was conducted using structural equation modelling and simultaneous confirmatory factor analysis. The novelty of the study lies in revealing the role of embeddedness in a family farm context, reinforced by specific morality, both of which play a significant role in shaping farmers' intentions. However, the effect of such path dependencies was ambiguous. Path dependencies had a positive effect on subjective norms, which in turn had an indirect positive effect on intentions. However, in relation to perceived behavioural control, path dependencies had a negative effect on intentions to adopt CF. The paradox that the more experienced and confident farmers were less likely to adopt sustainable practices was explained by an overconfidence bias, which is a useful observation for policy makers in terms of developing extension services. A second important finding is the confirmation of the key role of morality and the identification of motives related to land succession, which will be also useful for agricultural policy.

Sense of intergenerational commitment (SIC) is a key concept in the sustainable agriculture paradigm. However, a theoretical framework for integrating SIC into models describing farmers' decision-making is still lacking. Moldovan farmers have rarely been involved in international research, so it is not widely known that they are facing progressive soil degradation for which conservation agriculture (CA) appears to be an appropriate solution. The main objective is to estimate the influence of SIC on the intention to adopt CA practises by family farms specialised in cereals in Moldova. We examine the drivers of farmers' behavioural intentions within the framework of the extended theory of planned behaviour (TPB), incorporating the assertions of theories of justice. The analysis was conducted using structural equation modelling and simultaneous confirmatory factor analysis based on the semi-structured face-to-face questionnaires done in 2023. Our study is embedded in the SDGs 12 and 13 as it integrates long-term socio-economic continuity with pro-environmental attitudes within a farm. The article provides both theoretical and practical contributions. The results not only show that intergenerational commitments are the most important determinants of farmers' behaviour in the estimated model, providing a baseline for policy recommendations, but also that the integration of the SIC into the TPB is a powerful extension of this theory in the agricultural context. The results demonstrate that SIC is the underestimated part of the sustainable development paradigm, suggesting that agricultural policies should pay more attention to the intergenerational continuity of family farms by introducing more schemes that support this issue.

Short food supply chains (SFSCs) are a model promoted among farmers in many countries. This model is popularised as an opportunity to increase the economic efficiency. However, the research results found in the literature are ambiguous. This study therefore aims to assess the impact of participation in short food supply chains on the productivity and efficiency of farms. Poland and the Czech Republic are taken as examples of countries with a contrasting agrarian structure and different size classes of farms are investigated. Primary data come from semi-structured face-to-face interviews conducted among 375 producers divided into two groups - participating and not participating in SFSCs. The indices of productivity and non-parametric data envelopment analysis (DEA) were applied to assess differences in efficiency for two groups mentioned above. It was demonstrated that in Poland small farms participating in SFSC achieve higher production efficiency than farms not participating in SFSC.

The main aim of the research was to identify the differences in socio-demographic characteristics between managers of small farms in Poland who do and do not participate in short food supply chains (SFSCs). The analysis was based on the results of a survey conducted in 2023 among 199 respondents – farmers in Poland. Selected social and demographic variables were analysed. For the demographic ones, there were used: gender, age, education of the farm manager, and number of members on the farm. In turn, the level of social capital characterising farmers was described by participation in continuing education, participation in organizations, cooperatives, associations, clubs, etc., and participation in events, concerts, festivals, etc. A chi-square Pearson’s test of independence was used to compare two groups of farms in terms of the analysed variables. The strength of the relationships was measured using the V-Cramer convergence coefficient. Research revealed that among the social and demographic variables, gender and education were significant. Hence, among farms participating in the SFSCs, there were significantly more farms owned and managed by women and managers of those farms were better educated than managers of farms not participating in the SFSCs. Moreover higher level of social capital, particularly perceived through the involvement of farm owners or members of a household in lifelong education and membership in organisations, cooperatives, or associations was also a distinguishing feature of farms participating in the SFSCs.

The aim of this study was to identify the long-term tendencies regarding the land use in farms of different sizes in Poland and Czechia, with special focus on small-scale farms. The article answers the question about functioning of small farms in Poland and Czechia, as they represent different structures of land use among farms. On the one hand, the land fragmentation in Poland, and on the other hand, domination of large farms in Czechia, with a lower share of small farms. To achieve the aim, the study used data from (2005, 2007, 2010, 2013, 2016, 2020) and selected data for recent years from the World Bank database. In the period under analysis, it can be observed that there is a significant decline in the number of small farms both in Poland and Czechia, while the decrease in utilized agricultural area was smaller. Hence, the average area of farm increased which helped them to improve the land productivity, while increasing the standard output per hectare of utilized agricultural area. The analysis showed that there are two different models of the position of small farms in the Polish and Czech agricultural sectors, however, some positive and desired tendencies occur in both systems.

The problem of farm succession is one of the most important in Poland's agriculture sector and requires further in-depth research. With the increasing pressure of agriculture on the natural environment, it is particularly important to take this factor into account in the analysis. Therefore, the aim of this paper was to discover the influence of environmental and economic performance on decisions concerning succession in Poland's farms. We used the results of surveys carried out in 78 farms from the Wielkopolska region (Poland). Structural equation modelling (SEM) was then applied for analysis. We showed that the improvement of economic results positively influences the succession processes of farms, which is understandable from the point of view of the interests of potential successors. At the same time, we discovered that the probability of finding a farm's successor is negatively linked with the ‘environmental performance’ variable, which was contrary to our original assumption. We may conclude that farms applying environmental practices should be more interesting and desirable succession object due to the growing interest in ecology among young people, potential successors. It turned out that there is no such regularity in the study group. For that reason, it can be assumed that pro-environmental activities are in a sense a barrier to increasing economic efficiency. This has a negative influence on succession processes, rather than being pro-environmental itself is the cause. Thus, improving economic efficiency should be accompanied by environmental measures, which may require institutional support at the EU and national level for the transfer of farms, consolidation programmes, or even stronger incentives for young farmers. As for the environmental issues, it would be advisable to continue or implement new environmental programmes from the agricultural policy to have a longer action horizon.

Agricultural producers are entities that largely decide on the structure of the agri-food supply chain. Currently, the European Union is striving to shorten supply chains in agriculture, as short supply chains are ecologically, economically and socially more sustainable. The main objective of the paper is to examine the role of primary producers in the agri-food supply chains. The basic technique applied for data collection was questionnaire survey, which we carried out on family farms in Slovakia. Obtained data were statistically examined applying the statistical analysis using the Chi-square test. Based on the estimations, we could conclude that the choice of the main distribution channel depends on the size of the given company and also on the main type of production. Businesses with fewer than 10 employees prefer direct distribution channels that allow them to sell their products to final consumers. The identification of factors affecting the choice of the main distribution channel as well as a detailed analysis of the nature of dependence make it possible to formulate recommendations on what steps to take in order to increase the number of agricultural enterprises selling through short supply chains.

The European Union's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has been reformed several times since its launch in the early 1960s. It has evolved from a price support policy into a mechanism for supporting agricultural income and investment. At the same time, increasing concern has been given to environmental issues, in line with the paradigm of sustainable development. Part of this approach is the concern for the viability of family farms, including smallholder ones. The question that arises here is whether today's EU agricultural policy is really adapted to the needs of smallholder farms. The aim of this publication is to find an answer to the above question. Therefore, the study was conducted to assess the opinions of small family farms owners on the financial support within the EU common agricultural policy. Three European countries - Poland, Romania and Lithuania - were included in the analysis due to the relatively high share of small-scale farms. The research was organised in two stages. In the first, a synthetic measure of sustainability of smallholder farms was created among the holdings surveyed. The second stage included in-depth interviews with 20 – in each country - most sustainable farms. As a result, it was proved that financial support, especially in the form of the simplified direct payment, is necessary to ensure the viability of small farms, but the owners also expect greater price stability and equal conditions of competition within the food supply chain.

Prior studies on the relationships between economic, environmental, and social dimensions of activity on agricultural holdings has yielded inconclusive results. This study examines the interactions between these spheres, with the aim of determining what the relationships between them might be. The study was based on the results of surveys of 120 farms in the Wielkopolska region of Poland, using structural equation modeling. The results showed significant and positive relationships between the economic, social, and environmental dimensions that could create synergies between them. The strongest positive relationships existed between the economic and environmental dimensions. Thus, economic and environmental development can be stimulated simultaneously. Analyzed farms from the Wielkopolska region positively discount the existing support system in the EU to the complementarity between environmental and economic governance. Our research indicates the need for the EU to implement a strategy adjusted to the individual region's peculiarities in terms of environmental and social policies in rural areas.

The general aim of the study was to determine the impact of legal regulations in force on the market of liquid biofuels and biocomponents in Poland on the prices of fatty acid methyl esters (so-called biodiesel or BIO100 biofuel). Therefore, we indicated the importance of legal regulations in shaping biodiesel prices in Poland based on empirical data from the period of 2008-2016 (the latest available data). An additional purpose was to assess the legal regulations as drivers of ecodiesel (diesel with an admixture of biodiesel) prices in Poland based on empirical data from the period 2004-2021. Institutional, legal and economic variables were distinguished, assuming that the biofuel market, like many other markets, is so heavily regulated that taking legal acts into consideration is crucial for its functioning. Multiple regression analysis was used. The sources of data were officially available databases (PKN Orlen Data, FRED Economic Research Data, as well as USD/PLN exchange rate quotations), while the sources of legal acts were the Journal of Laws of the Republic of Poland and the Official Journal of the European Union. The obtained results indicated that the prices of biofuels (specifically biodiesel) in Poland depend both on economic factors (the USD/PLN exchange rate and crude oil prices) and on some legal regulations, including domestic and EU regulations. We proved the importance of the EU directive 2003/30 on the promotion of the use of biofuels or other renewable fuels for transport, as well as acts on renewable energy sources (2015), on amending the act on liquid biocomponents and biofuels (2014) and on excise duty (2008).

Given the unique role of small farms in providing their own food and nutrition security, the classic three-dimensional approach to sustainability evaluation is not exhaustive. In addition to the socio-economic and environmental dimensions, the question of sustainable development should be extended to the dimension of food and nutrition security. But yet the relations among the different sustainability dimensions at the farm level are not obvious. Consequently, the objective of this paper is to assess the interactions between food and nutrition security and the socio-economic and environmental dimensions of sustainability in small-scale farms. The study is based on surveys conducted in 2018 on a sample of 710 small-scale farms in Poland. By applying structural equation modeling with simultaneous confirmatory factor analysis, the study found a positive relationship between the socio-economic and food and nutrition security dimensions of sustainability, but there was a lack of synergy between the environmental component and the other dimensions.

Photovoltaics is increasingly used to convert solar energy into electricity in households, including in Poland. The development of this type of renewable energy results, on the one hand, from legal regulations related to climate and energy policies, and on the other hand, from the numerous benefits connected with the use of photovoltaics. These include both economic and environmental advantages. The aim of the work was to assess the profitability of installing photovoltaics in a Polish household in 2019–2021. Therefore, the costs of the investment are presented, as well as the benefits, mainly in economic terms. Different calculations and estimates concerning return on the invested capital are also shown. During the 31 months covered by the study, the cumulative positive balance of electricity that was generated above the energy consumed in the household exceeded 2,900 kWh, which resulted in an economic surplus of over PLN 1,600 (about EUR 360). What is more, the investment contributed to the protection of the natural environment which is the added value of the photovoltaics.

noważonego gospodarstw rolnych o nową perspektywę, obejmującą holistyczne podejście według teorii ekonomii politycznej i nowej ekonomii instytucjonalnej

The discussion on a balanced development of small agricultural farms is justified by the importance of the very concept of a balanced economic and social development of agriculture and the important role of small family farms in the Polish agriculture. In this subject area, there is an evident research gap regarding cross-sectional research concerning small family farms. The analysis of this subject presented in this article is based on theoretical concepts of political economy and new institutional economics. The main aim of the article is to identify microeconomic and political factors and market links that affect the level of economic and applying the TOPSIS method, the authors calculated first the degree of economic and social balance in individual farms, and then using the multiple regression they estimated the impact of the selected factors on the equilibrium level. The analysis indicates that the key determinant of a balanced development of agricultural farms is their integration with the market and their position in the marketing chain. Efficient distribution channels and trade links strengthen the economic and social position of the farm. A positive effect is also provided by the education and young age of the farmer, as well as by the output volume and size of the farm. On the other hand, a high share of EU subsidies in the farmer's income hampers a balanced development of the farm. As far as production structure is concerned, a mixed production model contributes more to a balanced development of the farm than the one-sided specialization in the vegetable or animal production. These dependencies may be an important advice for the policy providing governmental support for small agricultural farms in Poland.

Agriculture is a pillar of Serbia's economic development. Consequently, this paper provides an overview and analysis of the status of farms in Serbia, with a special focus on finding factors influencing the sustainable development of small-scale family farms. To facilitate simpler and more precise problem-solving and decision-making processes for improving the farms' operations, the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) model is used in this paper. This model is applied to the selection of key economic determinants for small farms' viability, illustrated through the results of the authors' own survey of 550 small farms in Serbia, which refers to the economic, social and environmental aspects of small farms' operation. By applying the criteria for selecting key economic indicators of a small farm, the multi-criteria assessment results can be utilised to inform more effective business and policy decisions directed at improving the operation of small-scale family farms. The survey results show that the best-ranked determinants for the viability of small farms in Serbia are first, the price of agricultural products, and next, well-structured agricultural product distribution channels.