ABSTRACT To effectively protect wild bee pollinators and the services they provide, it is critical to gather data on their distributions, life histories, and interactions with plants among a diversity of habitat types. Wetlands are underrepresented in bee surveys, despite having a great diversity of flowering plants and known importance to hundreds of species of wildlife. In this 2‐year survey of a restored wetland complex in Central New York, over 9000 bees were collected, representing ≥ 109 species in 25 genera. We recorded 337 unique plant–pollinator associations, including those previously undocumented for the wetland obligate masked bee, Hylaeus nelumbonis (Robertson). Floral resources and bee genera were most diverse in August, and network analyses indicated September networks were the most connected, nested, and least modular. Floral resources also shifted towards being more native over the course of the season. Results show that emergent wetlands support diverse guilds of pollinators in the latter half of the growing season, and that wetland management can produce diverse conditions conducive to wild bee habitat.

Large‐scale releases of domesticated, game‐farm Mallards Anas platyrhynchos to supplement wild populations have resulted in widespread introgressive hybridization that changed the genetic constitution of wild populations in eastern North America. The resulting gene flow is well documented between game‐farm and wild Mallards, but the mechanistic consequences from such interactions remain unknown in North America. We provide the first study to characterize and investigate potential differences in morphology between genetically known, wild and game‐farm Mallards in North America. We used nine morphological measurements to discriminate between wild and game‐farm Mallards with 96% accuracy. Compared with their wild counterparts, game‐farm Mallards had longer bodies and tarsi, shorter heads and wings, and shorter, wider and taller bills. The nail on the end of the bill of game‐farm Mallards was longer, and game‐farm Mallard bills had a greater lamellae:bill length ratio than wild Mallards. Differences in body morphologies between wild and game‐farm Mallards are consistent with an artificial, terrestrial life whereby game‐farm Mallards are fed pelleted foods, resulting in artificial selection for a more ‘goose‐like’ bill. We posit that: (1) game‐farm Mallards have diverged from their wild ancestral traits of flying and filter feeding towards becoming optimized to run and peck for food; (2) game‐farm morphological traits optimized over the last 400 years in domestic environments are likely to be maladaptive in the wild; and (3) the introgression of such traits into wild populations is likely to reduce fitness. Understanding the effects of game‐farm Mallard introgression requires analysis of various game‐farm × wild hybrid generations to determine how domestically derived traits persist or diminish with each generation.

Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) have been negatively affected by environmental toxicants for decades, including lead. Although Bald Eagles are a well-studied species, little is known about their survival and movement after rehabilitation from lead poisoning. In this study, we used global positioning system transmitters to track and monitor three adult male Bald Eagles that were rehabilitated from lead poisoning in New York. We generated kernel density estimates (KDEs) to assess space use during the typical breeding season for Bald Eagles in New York (1 Feb -30 Jun). For the two eagles that survived, we estimated 95% KDEs of 2119 and 46,598 km(2), and 50% KDEs of 258 and 7013 km(2). For the eagle that died 55-61 days after release, we generated two minimum convex polygons (874 and 311 km(2)) representing separate areas of concentrated use. The two surviving eagles had different movement strategies, with one following a non-breeding migratory strategy to Canada, whereas the other used a non-breeding localized pattern mostly in New York. Mean minimum daily movement distances for the surviving birds were similar between individuals in both the typical breeding and non-breeding periods. However, the migratory individual exhibited more daily movements > 50 km (8%) than the non-migratory individual (2%). Our results represent the first available baseline survival and movement data for eagles post-rehabilitation from lead poisoning. The necropsy of the deceased bird in this study indicated a recurrence of lead poisoning. We recommend the tracking of Bald Eagles for extended periods after lead poisoning rehabilitation to determine productivity and survival rates after sublethal lead poisoning events.

Eastern and Great Lakes populations of mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) have experienced a significant decline in recent years. These subpopulations are increasingly wild x game-farm mallard hybrids because of widespread releases of game-farm individuals. Concurrent with an increasing prevalence of releases, a near 50% decline in mallard populations in the United States occurred, while abundances remained stable in Canada. We aimed to refine our understanding of the metapopulation dynamics of eastern North American and Great Lakes mallards to provide information useful in population and harvest management. We used stable isotope and genetic techniques during pre-hunting season (July-September) banding to determine if banding location was representative of hatch or molt origin of mallards and if wild mallards captured and banded had more northern origins than wild x game-farm hybrids. Mallards are expected to be largely of local origin during the pre-hunting season, but nearly 50% of our sample had an origin north of their banding site, suggesting substantial movements during the banding period. We detected a similar percentage of wild x game-farm hybrid prevalence for the eastern mallard population (similar to 89%), but a substantial increase in the Great Lakes region (similar to 75%) compared to prior studies. However, we did not detect strong evidence for geographic or temporal variation in isotopic values (i.e., origins) of wild and hybrid mallards, which suggests that genotypes of mallards occurred together throughout the sampling period. Our results suggest that banding location of mallards in eastern North America does not equate to breeding ground origin or genotype (wild or hybrid), and we recommend investigation of other methods to understand if vital metrics differ among regions and genotypes. The movement we inferred during the banding season could potentially violate important assumptions that birds do not move among banding units and confound population vital rates estimated using banding returns. Thus, we recommend that current integrated population models consider eastern mallards as a single population because their movement throughout the banding period makes assessment at smaller geographic units invalid.

Winter habitat for the American Black Duck Anas rubripes (hereon Black Duck) has decreased on the Atlantic coast of North America because of urbanisation and other factors. Human development makes restoration of coastal wetlands for wildlife difficult, but agriculture could increasingly provide food for Black Duck during winter. Diet, body condition and stress indices of Black Duck and Mallard A . platyrhynchos were compared between coastal wetlands and sites with Corn Zea mays fields on Long Island, New York, used by the birds from late-January to late-March. Black Duck and Mallard were captured at Corn sites, whilst only Black Duck were collected in coastal wetlands. Mallard were not available in coastal wetlands for collection during the study. Stable isotope analysis indicated that the Black Duck ate more animal matter (measured by a blood delta 15 N index) at coastal than Corn sites, whereas Mallard and Black Duck at Corn sites had similar animal diets, although Mallard ate more Corn (determined by blood delta 13 C levels) than Black Duck. Body mass decreased during the winter for Black Duck at both coastal and Corn sites but increased in Mallard at Corn sites. Stress indices, measured by packed red blood cell volume and heterophil/lymphocyte ratios, suggested less stress for Black Duck when using Corn than when at the coastal sites. Results suggest an endogenous mechanism for weight loss in the Black Duck during winter which differs from Mallards in our study area, although given that Black Duck generally appear to eat less Corn other factors not considered here may also contribute to the weight loss patterns. Overall, Black Ducks appeared to benefit less than Mallards from the availability of Corn. Where feasible, continued protection and restoration to increase quantity and quality of coastal wetlands should be the focus on Long Island and elsewhere where Black Duck and Mallard are sympatric.

Abstract Phenolic compounds (phenolics) are secondary metabolites ubiquitous across plants. The earliest phenolics are linked to plants' successful transition from an aquatic to a terrestrial environment, serving as protection against damaging ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and as antioxidants to reduce oxidative stress in an atmosphere with an increasingly high O2:CO2 ratio. In modern plants, phenolics are best known for the defense against fungal and bacterial pathogens and as antifeedants that deter herbivory. Phenolics also play a role in seed dormancy, delaying germination, and lengthening viability in the seed bank. Many plants' seeds are endozoochorous – dispersed by animals, like birds, who eat and later excrete the seeds. Plants send visual signals to attract birds with UV‐sensitive (UVS) vision for pollination and seed dispersal. As fruits ripen, antioxidant activity and phenolic content decrease. The waxy cuticle of fruits increases in UV reflection as phenolic rings, which absorb UV light, degrade. The UV contrast that birds detect may act as an honest signal, indicating nutritional changes in the fruit. However, there is little evidence to support the evolution of UV coloration during ripening being driven by frugivore selection. Antioxidant properties of fruit phenolics may be dually adaptive in plants and avian frugivores.

The genetic composition of mallards in eastern North America has been changed by release of domestically-raised, game-farm mallards to supplement wild populations for hunting. We sampled 296 hatch-year mallards harvested in northwestern Ohio, October–December 2019. The aim was to determine their genetic ancestry and geographic origin to understand the geographic extent of game-farm mallard introgression into wild populations in more westward regions of North America. We used molecular analysis to detect that 35% of samples were pure wild mallard, 12% were early generation hybrids between wild and game-farm mallards (i.e., F1–F3), and the remaining 53% of samples were assigned as part of a hybrid swarm. Percentage of individuals in our study with some form of hybridization with game-farm mallard (65%) was greater than previously detected farther south in the mid-continent (~4%), but less than the Atlantic coast of North America (~ 92%). Stable isotope analysis usingδ2Hfsuggested that pure wild mallards originated from areas farther north and west than hybrid mallards. More specifically, 17% of all Ohio samples hadδ2Hfconsistent with more western origins in the prairies, parkland, or boreal regions of the mid-continent of North America, with 55%, 35%, and 10% of these being genetically wild, hybrid swarm, and F3, respectively. We conclude that continued game-farm introgression into wild mallards is not isolated to the eastern population of mallards in North America, and may be increasing and more widespread than previously detected. Mallards in our study had greater incidence of game-farm hybridization than other locales in the mid-continent but less than eastern North American regions suggesting further need to understand game-farm mallard genetic variation and movement across the continent.

The translocation of individuals around the world is leading to rising incidences of anthropogenic hybridization, particularly between domestic and wild congeners. We apply a landscape genomics approach for thousands of mallard ( Anas platyrhynchos ) samples across continental and island populations to determine the result of over a century of supplementation practices. We establish that a single domestic game-farm mallard breed is the source for contemporary release programs in Eurasia and North America, as well as for established feral populations in New Zealand and Hawaii. In particular, we identify central Europe and eastern North America as epicenters of ongoing anthropogenic hybridization, and conclude that the release of game-farm mallards continues to affect the genetic integrity of wild mallards. Conversely, self-sustaining feral populations in New Zealand and Hawaii not only show strong differentiation from their original stock, but also signatures of local adaptation occurring in less than a half-century since game-farm mallard releases have ceased. We conclude that ‘wild’ is not singular, and that even feral populations are capable of responding to natural processes. Although considered paradoxical to biological conservation, understanding the capacity for wildness among feral and feral admixed populations in human landscapes is critical as such interactions increase in the Anthropocene.

. Appropriate management and conservation of migratory species requires knowledge of connectivity between natal or breeding sites and stopover or wintering sites. For game species, such as waterfowl, knowledge of source areas that produce juveniles, which are available for harvest in the autumn-winter, is of considerable interest. External markers have long been used in mark-recapture studies to identify breeding grounds of waterfowl. However, this approach is biased toward regions of marking effort and is logistically difficult in remote locations. Harvest management of Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) in the U.S. portion of the Atlantic Flyway has assumed that the majority of harvested birds in the U.S. were produced there. We tested this assumption by inferring regions of natal origins of juvenile Mallards (n = 1254) harvested during the 2018-2019 and 2019-2020 hunting seasons in all states in the Atlantic Flyway using stable-hydrogen isotope analyses of breeding-ground grown feathers (62Hf). We created a species-specific feather isoscape and applied a Bayesian assignment approach to identify probable regions of origin. We determined 64% of our sample had 62Hf consistent with origins in Canada versus the U.S. Our data suggested all states harvested Mallards that had origins from the U.S. and Canada throughout their entire hunting season. Our results contrast with long-term breeding population estimates which suggest the majority of breeding pairs of eastern Mallards occur in the U.S. We recommend further investigation into reasons for disparities in national natal origins of harvested Mallards.

Abstract Lesser (Chen caerulescens caerulescens, LSGO) and greater snow goose (Chen caerulescens atlantica, GSGO) populations have increased substantially in the past 50 years. The light goose conservation order established in 1998 (Canada) and 1999 (U.S.) aimed to increase snow goose harvest and stabilize populations because breeding ground abundance was thought to negatively impact arctic ecosystems. In the Atlantic flyway, where LSGO and GSGO are both available for harvest, techniques to differentiate sub‐species in the field using morphology may be helpful for harvest management because mid‐continent LSGO are ~16 times more abundant than GSGO (n < 1,000,000). We investigated percentages and spatial distribution of LSGO and GSGO in the spring harvest in NY as this information could be useful for snow goose population and harvest management decisions. We developed a discriminant function analysis (DFA) using heads from snow geese harvested during spring 2016 to 2018 and were able to differentiate between LSGO and GSGO with 95.5% accuracy. Based on the DFA results, we estimated that spring harvest in New York state was 80% GSGO and 20% LSGO. Using band recoveries from autumn and spring harvests, we also identified that GSGO harvest occurred farther west during spring than autumn and in the 2010s than prior two decades. Our results indicate that GSGO comprise most snow goose harvest in New York state and provide evidence for a shift in spring migration patterns of GSGO since the 1990s.

Establishing links between breeding, stopover, and wintering sites for migratory species is important for their effective conservation and management. Isotopic assignment methods used to create these connections rely on the use of predictable, established relationships between the isotopic composition of environmental hydrogen and that of the non-exchangeable hydrogen in animal tissues, often in the form of a calibration equation relating feather (δ2Hf) values derived from known-origin individuals and amount-weighted long-term precipitation (δ2Hp) data. The efficacy of assigning waterfowl to moult origin using stable isotopes depends on the accuracy of these relationships and their statistical uncertainty. Most current calibrations for terrestrial species in North America are done using amount-weighted mean growing-season δ2Hp values, but the calibration relationship is less clear for aquatic and semi-aquatic species. Our objective was to critically evaluate current methods used to calibrate δ2Hp isoscapes to predicted δ2Hf values for waterfowl. Specifically, we evaluated the strength of the relationships between δ2Hp values from three commonly used isoscapes and known-origin δ2Hf values three published datasets and one collected as part of this study, also grouping these data into foraging guilds (dabbling vs diving ducks). We then evaluated the performance of assignments using these calibrations by applying a cross-validation procedure. It remains unclear if any of the tested δ2Hp isoscapes better predict surface water inputs into food webs for foraging waterfowl. We found only marginal differences in the performance of the tested known-origin datasets, where the combined foraging-guild-specific datasets showed lower assignment precision and model fit compared to data for individual species. We recommend the use of the more conservative combined foraging-guild-specific datasets to assign geographic origin for all dabbling duck species. Refining these relationships is important for improved waterfowl management and contributes to a better understanding of the limitations of assignment methods when using the isotope approach.

The rate of sea-level rise (SLR) has increased due to climate change, affecting coastal salt marshes. It is uncertain if species can persist with rapid SLR compounded with other effects of climate change and human activity. SLR-induced habitat loss may lead to extirpations and decreased biodiversity. We conducted a literature review of wildlife that use salt marshes and selected 25 species of birds, mammals, and reptiles representing obligate, facultative, and generalist salt marsh users. We developed three regional case studies to quantify the percentage change in species habitat. We used the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Sea Level Rise Viewer and ImageJ to calculate areal habitat changes in Apalachicola Bay, FL; Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, MD; and Cape Cod Bay, MA. We used available literature to determine land cover types to estimate species-specific habitat changes by 2050 and 2100. The changes in habitat availability varied among species and salt marsh dependence, but by 2100, average losses were projected to range across accretion rates from 56% to 63% for birds, 44% to 53% for mammals, and 65% to 66% loss for reptiles. Mean habitat loss was greater for obligate (70%–77%) than facultative (69%–70%) and generalist (49%–56%) salt marsh users. SLR-induced habitat loss has been examined for individual species, but few multispecies assessments exist. Our results suggest ubiquitous habitat loss by 2100. Protection, restoration, and management of salt marsh habitat are necessary to conserve common and imperiled wildlife species, sustaining the ecosystem services provided by wildlife and salt marshes.

Waterfowl management is more effective when based on detailed information on population connectivity between breeding, wintering, and stopover sites. For the American black duck (Anas rubripes), a species of conservation concern, estimates for the fall age ratio at harvest differed depending on whether harvest data were derived from Canada or the United States, suggesting regional differences. Within Canada, hunters in Atlantic Canada were more likely to harvest black ducks from nearby breeding locations compared to hunters in southern Ontario and Quebec, Canada, who were more likely to harvest individuals from the Boreal Softwood and Taiga Shield of eastern Canada. Black ducks harvested in the United States are thought to originate predominantly from northern portions of the breeding range, leading to the flyover hypothesis, which postulates that black ducks produced in the Boreal Softwood and Taiga Shield region are less susceptible to harvest by hunters in Atlantic Canada and northeastern United States. To test the flyover hypothesis, we examined regional and temporal differences in the origins of harvested black ducks using feathers from wings (n = 664) submitted by hunters to the species composition and parts collection surveys across 3 hunting seasons (2017-2018, 2018-2019, 2019-2020). We used a likelihood-based assignment method that relied on feather stable-hydrogen isotopes (delta H-2) and stable-carbon isotopes (delta C-13) to determine the natal or molt origin of individuals harvested within eastern Canada and the United States. We also used a spatial clustering technique to group harvested individuals by area of origin without a priori knowledge of such regions. Adult female black ducks originated farther south compared to males and juveniles. All sexes and ages of black ducks harvested in Atlantic Canada showed predominantly southern origins, while those harvested in the United States and other Canadian provinces primarily originated farther north within the boreal, supporting the flyover hypothesis. By contrast, we found no relationship between timing of harvest or peaks of migration and individual origin. After combining band returns and stable isotopes, we inferred 2 distinct stocks: the Mississippi flyway stock and the Atlantic flyway stock. We recommend that regional demographic parameters, particularly for Atlantic Canada, be directly measured to promote more effective conservation of black ducks and optimize harvest opportunities in the United States and Canada.

Aim: A novel corn field management program to feed wintering waterfowl was investigated. Background: Decreased food availability for waterfowl on the Atlantic coast may necessitate novel management. Methods: Standing sections of corn were chopped using a brush hog once every two weeks after the close of waterfowl hunting season on Long Island, New York, February – March 2018 and 2019. Corn was sampled to determine initial yield and waterfowl and other wildlife use, corn depletion, and relationships between depletion and energy needs of waterfowl were determined. Results: The mean (± SE) initial yield was 5,156.0 ± 1,306.7 kg/ha. Canada geese accounted for 54% of all waterfowl use and mallards were twice as abundant at corn fields than American black ducks. Fields averaged 4.08 ± 0.20 ha, but ~50% less corn could have been planted to meet the energy needs of waterfowl in this study. However, 27% of sections chopped in the first two weeks were depleted to zero or near zero, whereas sections chopped in the last two weeks had 1,954.9 ± 1,309.9 kg/ha of corn. Conclusion: More corn could have been chopped early in winter and less as spring approached to meet the seasonal energy needs of waterfowl. Waterfowl using corn fields could gain fitness advantages, but a better understanding of diets, body condition, and seasonal stress, as well as the use of corn fields relative to other habitats by individual Canada geese and ducks, are needed. Results provide guidance on the delivery of corn planting and chopping programs to feed wintering waterfowl in the northeastern United States.

Active water management of wetlands promotes seed and tuber production to feed migrating waterfowl, but few assessments exist to determine how management actions influence wetland structure, vegetation and bird response throughout the year. We identified effects of full water drawdown, partial water drawdown and passive wetlands (no active dewatering during the growing season) on plant communities and bird abundance in wetlands of the Montezuma Wetlands Complex, New York, May–October 2016–2018 and February–April 2017–2019. We detected few differences in the plant community during June, but during September we detected greater vegetative forage quality index for waterfowl, annual plant cover and seed density in full and partial drawdowns than passive wetlands. Bird abundance was greater in June–July in passive wetlands and greater in September–October in full drawdowns. During spring migration, duck densities were greater in full and partial drawdowns. Our results indicate that wetland managers should use a mix of full drawdowns and passive wetlands to provide habitat for the greatest diversity and number of birds throughout the year.

Conserving critical wildlife habitat at a regional scale can be challenging, especially when the region hosts a range of land uses, jurisdictions, and competing interests. Abundant opportunities exist for cooperation when vested conservation entities find common ground to use their unique strengths in a cooperative effort to protect and restore wetlands for wildlife and people. We present the Montezuma Wetlands Complex (MWC) Land Protection Partnership as a case study of regional conservation collaboration aimed at identifying areas in greatest need of wetland protection and restoration to support wetland wildlife and provide wildlife-based recreation. The MWC is among the most important wetland complexes in the Atlantic flyway of eastern North America for migratory birds because it provides critical migratory stopover habitat for millions of birds and regionally unique habitats for breeding birds and resident wildlife, including numerous endangered and threatened (E&T) species. This case study demonstrates how state, federal, and nonprofit entities with differing goals and objectives can partner to protect and restore critical wetland habitat for wildlife. Partners optimized efforts by developing an online survey that included physical, land cover, biological, and people/use attributes which were ranked by each partner to determine common priorities and applied these into a spatial mapping, decision-support tool. Within attribute categories, land protection (physical), emergent marshes (land use), E&T (biological), and recreational areas (people/use) were highest ranked by partners. The decision-support tool provided an objective method of ranking parcels of land for public outreach efforts by the partners to protect and restore wetland wildlife habitat.

Relationships between individual resource selection strategies and fitness are difficult to quantify at large spatial scales. These links are important for understanding the potential effects of management on population-level processes. We modeled the degree to which selection of specific landscape features altered mortality risk of female mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) during the non-breeding season. We used individual resource selection estimates from adult female mallards equipped with Global Positioning System (GPS) backpack transmitters (n = 56) in the Lake St. Clair region of southwestern Ontario, Canada, in August of 2014 and 2015. We determined the fate of individuals between August and January and used time-to-event analyses to model survival over 158 days. Furthermore, we investigated how diurnal and nocturnal resource selection and year were related to mortality risk. The survival rate for the adult female mallards was 0.57 (95% CI = 0.42-0.77). Resource types were combinations of land class types (e.g., water, marsh, flooded agriculture, supplemental feeding areas, and dry agriculture) important to mallards and varying levels of risk from anthropogenic disturbance ranging from inviolate refuges to publicly accessed areas where we predicted mortality risk to be greatest. Our results suggest that water that the public can access (i.e., public water) influenced mortality risk during multiple seasons. Specifically, selection of public water by female mallards reduced mortality risk diurnally during the non-hunting period (hazard ratio = 0.68, 95% CI = 0.48-0.96) but increased mortality risk during the first half of the hunting period (hazard ratio = 1.54, 95% CI = 1.08-2.20). Our research highlights that individual selection strategies by ducks within this landscape can influence mortality risk.

Abstract - We used contemporary data of Aythya affinis (Lesser Scaup) and A. marila (Greater Scaup) (hereafter referred together as Scaup) to explore the utility of mark–recapture analysis to estimate annual abundance of Scaup at Great South Bay (GSB), NY, in winter 2019. We also used historic banding data to estimate temporal and spatial changes in Scaup banded along the north, mid-, and south Atlantic Coast regions during winter and recovered by hunters within <1 year. Capture bias of banded Scaup was substantial because we estimated ≤8130 Scaup on GSB using the upper 95% confidence limit of models, but regularly observed ≥30,000 near banding sites. We did not detect a spatial or temporal influence on Greater Scaup recoveries. Lesser Scaup recovery longitude differed by region and shifted 209 km east from 1920 to 2019.