We assessed the effects of cub age, litter size, and sex, on body mass (BM), absolute and relative growth rates (AGR, RGR), opening of ears and eyes, and deciduous teeth eruption from 129 cubs of American black bears (Ursus americanus) born at Virginia Tech's Black Bear Research Center. Specific ages, related to maternal food consumption, and litter size, best described BM, AGR, RGR, and ear and eye development. Overall, newborns weighed similar to 0.44 kg at birth and increased similar to 9-fold by similar to 14 weeks. Twins were greater in BM than single cubs and triplets. Single and triplet cubs had higher AGR and RGR than twins after mothers resumed food consumption post-hibernation. Newborns displayed RGR > 3.5% that decreased until den emergence (RGR < 3.5% after emergence). RGR differed among litter sizes, particularly after den emergence. Ear and eye opening occurred concurrently at similar to 44 days of age, while teeth erupted similar to 10 days later. Single cubs experienced delayed development of these organs compared to other litter sizes. Postnatal developmental differences between black bears and other carnivores likely stem from strategies allowing black bears to minimize energy expenditure during the gestational period when hibernating.

Little is known about black bear (Ursus americanus) populations in northeastern Arizona, an area characterized by rugged canyon topography and varied habitat composition. We placed global positioning system collars on four bears in this area to characterize second-order, landscape-level habitat use and examine habitat use and movement patterns of bears across this landscape. Data from four global positioning system collars revealed that bears use areas with higher tree canopy cover and terrain ruggedness, indicating that forest and escape cover are important factors driving black bear habitat use at the landscape level. Movement patterns revealed long, linear mean daily movements that follow the structure of the canyon topography. These long, linear movements also allow bears to take advantage of the mosaic of habitats and food resources available in this unique landscape.

We examined records of black bear damage in Virginia on Shenandoah National Park, (SNP) (1979-1988) and non-Park lands (1973-1988). Mean annual damage was $5,470 on non-Park lands and $1,217 on the Park. Corn and beehives accounted for 79 percent and personal property for 72 percent of the economic loss on non-Park and Park lands respectively. Young males were responsible for most damage on non-Park lands while adults of both sexes caused most damage on SNP. Over 70 percent of bear damage incidents in the state occurred either on the Park or on land immediately adjacent to the Park. Moving bears to alleviate damage is expensive and may only move the problem to a new location.

Impacts of large-scale changes in habitat due to human development, invasive species, and climate change are important considerations for wildlife management. Likewise, as efforts increase to recover and restore human-altered landscapes, indirect consequences on nontarget components of the restored ecosystem also must be considered. Currently, efforts are underway to eradicate nonnative Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia) and tamarisk (Tamarix spp.) in Canyon de Chelly National Monument (CACH), United States, yet impacts to native wildlife, including the American black bear (Ursus americanus), which relies on these species for escape cover and foraging habitat, are not fully understood. Further, these efforts have the potential to impact sociopolitical aspects of the ecosystem, namely human–bear interactions (e.g., raiding of crops and livestock). We used occupancy modeling to evaluate black bear foraging ecology and habitat use in CACH to better understand how bears are using native and nonnative habitat resources and how restoration efforts may impact bears and human–bear interactions. We found that black bears rely heavily on Russian olive for food and that habitat use is driven by both native and nonnative (i.e., Russian olive) food resources; thus, restoration of native habitat in CACH may have negative impacts on bears through loss of a primary nonnative food source and escape cover. Furthermore, bear–human interactions may temporarily increase in the short term as bears adjust to this loss. Evaluating habitat use in an occupancy modeling framework provides an effective means for gauging nontarget impacts of restoration efforts on wildlife species, an essential step in effective wildlife management.

Recovery of large carnivores remains a challenge because complex spatial dynamics that facilitate population persistence are poorly understood. In particular, recovery of the critically endangered red wolf (Canis rufus) has been challenging because of its vulnerability to extinction via human-caused mortality and hybridization with coyotes (Canis latrans). Therefore, understanding red wolf space use and habitat selection is important to assist recovery because key aspects of wolf ecology such as interspecific competition, foraging, and habitat selection are well-known to influence population dynamics and persistence. During 2009-2011, we used global positioning system (GPS) radio-telemetry to quantify space use and 3rd-order habitat selection for resident and transient red wolves on the Albemarle Peninsula of eastern North Carolina. The Albemarle Peninsula was a predominantly agricultural landscape in which red wolves maintained spatially stable home ranges that varied between 25 km2 and 190 km2. Conversely, transient red wolves did not maintain home ranges and traversed areas between 122 km2 and 681 km2. Space use by transient red wolves was not spatially stable and exhibited shifting patterns until residency was achieved by individual wolves. Habitat selection was similar between resident and transient red wolves in which agricultural habitats were selected over forested habitats. However, transients showed stronger selection for edges and roads than resident red wolves. Behaviors of transient wolves are rarely reported in studies of space use and habitat selection because of technological limitations to observed extensive space use and because they do not contribute reproductively to populations. Transients in our study comprised displaced red wolves and younger dispersers that competed for limited space and mating opportunities. Therefore, our results suggest that transiency is likely an important life-history strategy for red wolves that facilitates metapopulation dynamics through short- and long-distance movements and eventual replacement of breeding residents lost to mortality.

Decreased physical activity in mammals increases bone turnover and uncouples bone formation from bone resorption, leading to hypercalcemia, hypercalcuria, bone loss and increased fracture risk. Black bears, however, are physically inactive for up to 6 months annually during hibernation without losing cortical or trabecular bone mass. Bears have been shown to preserve trabecular bone volume and architectural parameters and cortical bone strength, porosity and geometrical properties during hibernation. The mechanisms that prevent disuse osteoporosis in bears are unclear as previous studies using histological and serum markers of bone remodeling show conflicting results. However, previous studies used serum markers of bone remodeling that are known to accumulate with decreased renal function, which bears have during hibernation. Therefore, we measured serum bone remodeling markers (BSALP and TRACP) that do not accumulate with decreased renal function, in addition to the concentrations of serum calcium and hormones involved in regulating bone remodeling in hibernating and active bears. Bone resorption and formation markers were decreased during hibernation compared with when bears were physically active, and these findings were supported by histomorphometric analyses of bone biopsies. The serum concentration of cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript (CART), a hormone known to reduce bone resorption, was 15-fold higher during hibernation. Serum calcium concentration was unchanged between hibernation and non-hibernation seasons. Suppressed and balanced bone resorption and formation in hibernating bears contributes to energy conservation, eucalcemia and the preservation of bone mass and strength, allowing bears to survive prolonged periods of extreme environmental conditions, nutritional deprivation and anuria.

During 1997-2012 we conducted a nationwide camera-trapping survey and assessed the availability of prey and habitat for the clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa in Taiwan. We surveyed 1,249 camera-trap sites over 113,636 camera-trap days, from the seashore to an altitude of 3,796 m and covering various types of vegetation. No clouded leopards were photographed during 128,394 camera-trap days, including at 209 sites in other studies, confirming the presumed extinction of clouded leopards in Taiwan. Assessment of the prey base revealed altitudinal distribution patterns of prey species and prey biomass. Areas at lower altitudes and with less human encroachment and hunting supported a higher prey biomass and more of the typical prey species of clouded leopards. Habitat analysis revealed 8,523 km(2) of suitable habitat but this was reduced to 6,734 km(2) when adjacent areas of human encroachment were subtracted. In the absence of hunting and large mammalian carnivores the major prey of clouded leopards in Taiwan, such as Formosan macaques Macaca cyclopis, Reeves's muntjacs Muntiacus reevesi, Formosan serow Capricornis swinhoei and sambar Rusa unicolor, could become over-abundant. Thus, it is important to address the cascading effect of the disappearance of top-down predator control. Our assessment indicated that, with proper regulation of hunting, habitat restoration and corridor improvement, it may be possible to reintroduce the clouded leopard.

Abstract Information on spatial and temporal variation in abundance is crucial for effective management of wildlife. Yet abundance estimates for the Critically Endangered Sumatran tiger Panthera tigris sumatrae are lacking from Riau, the province historically believed to hold the largest percentage of this subspecies. Recently, this area has had one of the highest global rates of deforestation. Using camera traps we investigated tiger abundance across peatland, flat lowland, and hilly lowland forest types in the province, and over time, in the newly established Tesso Nilo National Park, central Sumatra. We estimated densities using spatially explicit capture–recapture, calculated with DENSITY, and traditional capture–recapture models, calculated with CAPTURE. With spatially explicit capture–recapture the lowest tiger density (0.34 ± SE 0.24 per 100 km2) was estimated in the hilly lowland forest of Rimbang Baling and the highest (0.87 ± SE 0.33 per 100 km2) in the flat lowland forest of the Park. Repeated surveys in the Park documented densities of 0.63 ± SE 0.28 in 2005 to 0.87 ± SE 0.33 per 100 km2 in 2008. Compared to traditional capture–recapture the spatially explicit capture–recapture approach resulted in estimates 50% lower. Estimates of tiger density from this study were lower than most previous estimates in other parts of Sumatra. High levels of human activity in the area appear to limit tigers. The results of this study, which covered areas and habitat types not previously surveyed, are important for overall population estimates across the island, provide insight into the response of carnivores to habitat loss, and are relevant to the interventions needed to save the tiger.

Hibernation is an adaptation to conserve energy in the face of extreme environmental conditions and low food availability that has risen in several animal phyla. This phenomenon is characterized by reduced metabolic rate (∼25% of the active basal metabolic rate in hibernating bears) and energy demand, while other physiological adjustments are far from clear. The profiling of the serum proteome of the American black bear (Ursus americanus) may reveal specific proteins that are differentially modulated by hibernation, and provide insight into the remarkable physiological adaptations that characterize ursid hibernation. In this study, we used differential gel electrophoresis (DIGE) analysis, liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry, and subsequent MASCOT analysis of the mass spectra to identify candidate proteins that are differentially expressed during hibernation in captive black bears. Seventy serum proteins were identified as changing by ±1.5 fold or more, out of which 34 proteins increased expression during hibernation. The majority of identified proteins are involved in immune system processes. These included α2-macroglobulin, complement components C1s and C4, immunoglobulin μ and J chains, clusterin, haptoglobin, C4b binding protein, kininogen 1, α2-HS-glycoprotein, and apoplipoproteins A-I and A-IV. Differential expression of a subset of these proteins identified by proteomic analysis was also confirmed by immunodetection. We propose that the observed serum protein changes contribute to the maintenance of the hibernation phenotype and health, including increased capacities for bone maintenance and wound healing during hibernation in bears.

Po-Jen Chiang, Kurds Jai-Chyi Pei, Michael R. Vaughan, and Ching-Feng Li (2012) Niche relationships of carnivores in a subtropical primary forest in southern Taiwan. Zoological Studies 51(4): 500-511. Carnivores are at the higher trophic levels and have garnered much attention in conservation and management efforts. In this study, we attempted to understand resource partitioning among sympatric carnivores existing in a primary forest with minimal human disturbance in southern Taiwan by camera trapping after the disappearance of the top carnivore, the clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa). Niche relationships were studied in terms of habitat, diet, and time dimensions. Six carnivore species were recorded, but the Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus formosanus) was very rare. Canonical correspondence analysis of photographic rates and habitat factors of the other 5 carnivores showed that elevation was the strongest factor explaining the composition of the carnivore community in the habitat dimension. Carnivores could be divided into 3 groups. The low- to mid-elevation group consisted of the gem-faced palm civet (Paguma larvata taivana) and crab-eating mongoose (Herpestes urva formosanus) which had contrasting activity patterns and different diets; the mid- to high-elevation group consisted of yellow-throated marten (Martes flavigula chrysospila) and Siberian weasel (Mustela sibirica taivana). These 2 mustelids had similar diets, but Siberian weasels tended to avoid yellow-throated martens temporally. The Formosan ferret badger (Melogale moschata subaurantiaca) was more widely distributed along the elevational gradient. Ferret badgers partitioned resource use in either diet, activity patterns, or other habitat gradients from the other carnivores. Niche segregation and complementary resource use were observed in these 5 carnivores. http://zoolstud.sinica.edu.tw/Journals/51.4/500.pdf

BACKGROUND/AIMS:A decrease in glomerular podocyte number in membranous nephropathy and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) ultimately underlines glomerulosclerosis and the decrease in kidney function. Recent studies have shown that in these diseases, glomerular parietal epithelial cells begin to express proteins considered unique to podocytes, and that these glomerular epithelial transition cells might serve as podocyte progenitors. Because retinoids improve many forms of experimental glomerular disease characterized by podocyte injury and loss, we asked if all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) induces parietal epithelial cells to express podocyte proteins.METHODS:ATRA or vehicle was administered to rats with experimental membranous nephropathy (passive Heymann nephritis model) and mice with experimental FSGS (anti-glomerular antibody model) following the onset of proteinuria. Immunohistochemistry staining of PAX2 (parietal epithelial cell marker), WT-1 (podocyte cell marker), and Ki-67 (proliferation marker) were performed on kidney tissues.RESULTS:Compared to diseased animals receiving vehicle, ATRA statistically significantly increased the number of glomerular transition cells, defined as cells double-staining for PAX2 and WT-1, in membranous nephropathy at weeks 2, 5 and 16, and in FSGS at weeks 1 and 2. This was accompanied by an increase in the number of podocytes compared to diseased controls receiving vehicle.CONCLUSION:ATRA increases the number of glomerular epithelial transition cells in experimental proteinuric glomerular diseases. Thus, ATRA may provide a useful pharmacologic approach to decipher the mechanisms underlying the possible progenitor role of parietal epithelial cells.

Large carnivores, with their expansive home range and resource requirements, are a good model for understanding how animal populations alter habitat selection and use as human densities and development increase. We examined the habitat selection of red wolves (Canis rufus) in North Carolina, USA, where the population of red wolves resides in a mosaic of naturally occurring and human-associated land cover. We used locations from 20 GPS-collared red wolves, monitored over 3 years, to develop resource selection functions at the landscape level. Red wolves selected for human-associated land-cover over other land-cover types. Red wolves also selected areas near secondary roads. However, red wolves avoided areas with high human density, and avoidance of natural land-cover types decreased as human density increased; this interaction was strong enough that red wolves selected for natural land-cover types over human-associated land-cover types at relatively high human density. Similarly, avoidance of natural land-cover types decreased when they were near secondary roads. These results suggest that red wolves will use human-associated landscapes, but modify their habitat selection patterns with increased human presence. Such findings suggest that large carnivores such as the red wolf may not strictly require habitats devoid of humans. In a world with rapid human-alteration of habitat, understanding how increasing human density and development impact habitat selection is vital to managing for population persistence of large carnivores and maintaining top-down ecological processes. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Timing of parturition and, to a lesser extent, estrus, are rarely explored aspects of American black bear (Ursus americanus) reproductive ecology. The Cooperative Alleghany Bear Study was an intensive 10-year multi-faceted research project conducted on 2 study areas in western Virginia. We examined timing of estrus based on 430 observations of 326 lone (without cubs at the time of capture) female bears from late May-August, 1994-2002. We estimated parturition date for 383 cubs from 150 litters born from 996-2003 to 99 individual females ranging from 3-24 years old. Bears were documented in estrus from late May through August with a peak during early July. Parturition dates ranged from late December to mid February with most births occurring in mid January. Three- and 4-year olds gave birth, on average, 12 days later than older bears. We suggest parturition date likely affects den exit date and perhaps cub survival, an area requiring further inquiry.

This report summarizes research conducted along US Highway 64 (US 64) and US Highway 264 (US 264) in Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge (ARNWR), Dare County, NC regarding the proposed expansion of US 64. The study site included the areas adjacent to US 64 from the Alligator River Bridge to the US 64/US 264 intersection and from Cub Road to Borrow Pit Road on US 264. This report evaluates potential effects of the road improvement project on the black bear population, delineates significant wildlife crossing areas, and provides data on movement patterns and population dynamics of black bears on ARNWR. The primary focus of the research was to identify sites along US 64, frequently used by black bears and white-tailed deer as potential sites for wildlife crossing structures. It is the legal obligation of the US Fish and Wildlife Service to conduct a Compatibility Determination to decide whether the proposed project is compatible with the purpose of the refuge. The current wildlife use patterns surrounding the highway and the potential short and long-term effects of the expansion project on the entire suite of wildlife occupying the areas directly adjacent to US 64 were evaluated. The authors employed a variety of research methods including; roadside barbed wire hair collection, Global Positioning System (GPS) collar deployments, remote camera trapping, road kill surveys, and driving surveys. The road side barbed wire surveys documented 890 black bear road crossings from March 2009 – March 2011. 83 individual bears (65M:18F) were genetically identified from hair samples collected. GPS collars were deployed on 49 individual bears (26M:23F) and detailed 15 bears (11M:4F) crossing US 64, 99 times. The GPS collars also detailed intense use of the areas directly adjacent to US 64. We photo-captured 170 white-tailed deer, > 200 bobcats and raccoons and an additional 260 black bears at 12 guard rail openings along US 64 from June 2009 – March 2011. Driving surveys provided additional 3 and 19 sightings of black bears and white-tailed deer respectively from March 2009 – March 2010. We identified 184 individual bears (132M:52F) within the study area. Road kill surveys documented 8 white-tailed deer (2M:3F:3U) road mortalities from November 2008 – July 2011. Including historical data collected by the USFWS, the cumulative total of road killed black bears on US 64 from January 1993 – July 2011 was 63 (35M:20F:8U: =3.32/year). Road kill data also included; 75 bats (7 species, 1 species a NC Threatened Species), 82 small mammals (9 species), 134 mid-sized mammals (10 species), 1,153 birds (66 species), 4,014 reptiles (44 species), and 7,498 amphibians (18 species). Four species recovered in our surveys were NC Species of Concern. This study identified 6 high priority areas for black bear and white-tailed deer crossing and an extensive network of crossing areas for small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians.

We studied reproduction of American black bears (Ursus americanus) in western Virginia from 1994 to 2003. We handled 326 >= 2-year-old female black bears 672 times during summer trapping and followed 176 of these individuals through 424 winter den seasons. We examined 183 litters consisting of 455 cubs. Primiparity occurred at mean and modal ages of 3.8 and 3 years, respectively. Composite mean litter size was 2.49 (SE = 0.06) cubs/litter; 3- and 4-year-olds had smaller litters than older bears. We tracked reproductive synchrony using 5 indices and documented a resetting of this synchrony, likely in response to hard-mast failure. The amplitude of oscillations in synchrony indices dampened through time after the synchronizing events. Documentation and quantification of relationships between nutrient availability, reproduction and population dynamics can be used to inform population modeling efforts and more accurately forecast harvest. (C) 2011 The Wildlife Society.

The authors used data from 16 red wolves fitted with Global Positioning System (GPS)-collars between January 2009 and April 2011 to evaluate home range size and habitat selection, road permeability, and identify significant red wolf highway crossing locations. Home range size for red wolves averaged 13.7 mi² with no significant difference between males and females. Although the authors found no significant difference in home range size among age classes, dispersers tended to have larger home ranges than adults and juveniles. Red wolf home ranges were larger during winter than during other seasons. Red wolves avoided wetter habitats such as pocosins, wetlands, and lowland forests, leaving agriculture the best predictor of red wolf presence. Red wolves also selected for the presence of agriculture/forest road systems for travel. Road permeability, calculated using GPS-collar data, was 100%, thus the current 2- lane highway does not impose a barrier effect on the red wolf population. This increases the risk of road mortality events. Using a 3281 ft. (1 km) buffer, construction north of the current US 64 in Tyrrell County has the potential to remove up to 0.16 mi² of red wolf habitat and 6% of the home range area used by a current red wolf pack while construction to the south will impact only 0.09 mi² of red wolf habitat and will not displace any current red wolf packs. East of Alligator River in Dare County, a widening of the current highway to the south has the potential to remove up to of 0.07 mi² of red wolf habitat and 20% of the home range used by the only existing red wolf pack in Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge if construction disturbs out to 3281 ft. (1 km) from the current road. Construction to the north of US 64 in Dare County has the potential to remove up to 0.04 mi² of red wolf habitat and will not overlap with any current packs, based on 95% home ranges. Through the use of GPS-collars and remote camera traps, we identified 5 important red wolf crossing locations, 4 in Tyrrell County west of Alligator River and 1 in Dare County east of Alligator River. The presence of agricultural fields, successional fields, and/or upland forests 328 to 492 ft. from the road provided the most parsimonious explanation for the location of crossing sites identified using GPS-collar locations; trail/road width provided the best explanation for the location of crossing sites identified by remote camera traps. The presence of agricultural fields, successional fields, and upland forests as well as proximity to maintained agricultural/forest roads at crossing sites corresponds to habitat selection results. Four of the 5 red wolf crossing locations the authors identified are suitable for crossing structures. The most western crossing site is located within the town of Colombia, NC where retro-fitting a wildlife underpass is not practical. Well maintained trails at least 26.24 ft. (8 m) in width leading to and from underpasses, which connect habitats selected for by red wolves (e.g. agriculture, successional fields, and upland forests), is suggested to optimize efficacy.

ABSTRACT Telazol® (Fort Dodge Animal Health, Fort Dodge, IA) is an effective immobilization drug for American black bears (Ursus americanus), but concern exists regarding retention time of this drug in tissues relative to human consumption of bears. Therefore, we evaluated retention time of Telazol in captured American black bears immobilized with Telazol and held in captivity for 3 days, 7 days, 14 days, or 21 days. We detected Telazol in muscle and liver of one bear on day 7, in serum from 2 bears on day 7, and in urine of one bear each on day 3 and day 14. Our findings suggest Telazol is metabolized and eliminated quickly from the bear's system and should allow managers additional flexibility in mark‐recapture studies and nuisance situations.