Photocatalytic N2 fixation provides a promising pathway to sustainable ammonia (NH3) production. However, limited surface active sites and rapid photogenerated carrier recombination severely restrict the photocatalytic efficiency. Herein, the aforementioned challenges are addressed by manipulating oxygen vacancy (Ov) and surface spin state in ferroelectric BaTiO3 (BTO) by doping Fe cations and applying an external magnetic field. Experimental and theoretical calculations reveal that Fe doping promotes the formation of oxygen vacancies and regulates the electronic and magnetic properties of BTO through the induction of asymmetric charge distribution and spin selectivity effect. The strengthened built-in electric field significantly facilitates bulk carrier separation efficiency. Fe-doped BTO, with a matched symmetric orbit, enhances the electron-transfer capability for triple N2, and lowers activation barriers for *N2 hydrogenation and *NH3 desorption. Consequently, Fe:BTO–5.0 delivers an exceptional NH3 yield of 184.84 µmol gcat−1 h−1 under an applied magnetic field, about 17.2 times higher than pristine BTO. The origin of the improved NH3 yield is due to the electromagnetic synergistic effect between the internal electric field and an external magnetic field, resulting in facilitated photoexcited carrier separation and promoted N2 activation and *NH3 desorption. Our result presents a viable N2 activation strategy via the synergy of transition metal electronic modulation, spin selectivity effect, and external magnetic field assistance.

The rational design of efficient, dual-functional photocatalysts that operate under ambient conditions remains a significant challenge. Herein, we engineer a photothermal-driven, self-floating catalyst by anchoring a black MoS2/SnS2 heterojunction on waste-derived fly ash (MoS2/SnS2-FA). This configuration ingeniously creates a triphase (gas-liquid-solid) reaction interface, overcoming mass-transfer limitations inherent in conventional gas-solid or liquid-solid systems. Under simulated solar irradiation without external heating, the optimized MoS2/SnS2-FA achieves a CO production rate of 329.7 & micro;mol g-1 h-1 and a CH4 production rate of 112 & micro;mol g-1 h-1, with a CH4 selectivity of 25.4% among carbonaceous products, which is 3.4 to 16.4 times higher than its counterparts in biphasic configurations, and simultaneously delivers 91.2% tetracycline degradation within 60 minutes. In situ spectroscopic analyses confirm the formation of key intermediates (e.g., adsorbed COOH* and CO*) during CO2 reduction. The enhanced performance stems from a synergistic interplay: the type-II heterojunction establishes a built-in electric field that drives spatial separation of photogenerated charges, while the black MoS2 acts as a potent photothermal converter, locally elevating the interfacial temperature to accelerate reaction kinetics. This work provides a sustainable strategy for concurrent CO2 valorization and pollutant degradation through triphase photothermal catalysis.

Lithium metal is regarded as the most promising anode material for high energy density secondary batteries because of its high theoretical specific capacity and low redox potential. Nevertheless, its practical application is severely hindered by poor interfacial stability and uncontrollable dendrite growth. An inorganic/organic composite SEI by coating applied to the surface of Li metal (named FeF3-PAA@Li) is created through a chemical in-situ treatment method for the Li metal with a solution including PAA and FeF3, which is made of a flexible LiPAA organic matrix in which rigid LiF, FeF2, and LiFe alloy inorganic nanoparticles are embedded. The soft LiPAA matrix acts as a chemically inert and stretchable skin, effectively accommodating volume changes and avoiding additional parasitic reactions. Meanwhile, the inorganic nanoparticles provide enhanced structural robustness to impede proliferation of Li dendrites and enable uniform Li+ distribution for even Li electroplating. Thus, both LiO2 cells and Li||Li symmetric cells incorporating FeF3-PAA@Li show a low overpotential and consistent cycling stability. This SEI design offers a viable pathway for enabling stable and high-efficiency LiO2 batteries in practical settings.

Magnetic field enhancement represents an effective strategy to promote electrocatalytic water splitting, yet the mechanistic origin of asymmetric hydrogen evolution reaction (HER)/oxygen evolution reaction (OER) promotion remains poorly understood. Here, we investigate a bifunctional Fe0.5Rh0.5 (FeRh) single-crystal thin-film catalyst and demonstrate distinct asymmetric activity improvement under a 13 kOe magnetic field, ∼40% enhancement for HER and ∼32% for OER. Density functional theory and spin-resolved electronic structure analysis reveal that the field raises spin polarization by 1.2%, enhances density of states near the Fermi level, and accelerates interfacial charge transfer. The asymmetric enhancement stems from a more significant Gibbs free energy reduction for H adsorption than for OH**. Moreover, FeRh follows the oxide pathway mechanism to avoid excessive surface oxyhydroxide passivation, ensuring a stable magneto-responsive catalysis. This work clarifies the fundamental mechanism of asymmetric magnetic field promotion and provides a rational design for magnetically enhanced bifunctional electrocatalysts.

This work systematically explores the structural and electrochemical properties of carbon-coated LMFP/NCM811 blended cathode materials with varying ratios. X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscope, and electrochemical testing reveal that both pristine NCM811 and LMFP exhibit high crystallinity and purity, with no impurity peaks in blended samples, indicating no mutual reaction or new phase formation during ball-milling. As NCM811 content increases, its characteristic diffraction peaks strengthen while LMFP peaks weaken. The blended samples show better electrochemical performance than pristine LMFP. The LMFP@C/NCM811 (1:1) blend has the best comprehensive performance, with an initial discharge capacity of 169.3 mAh g-1 at 1 C, retaining 111 mAh g-1 at 5 C and 62 mAh g-1 at 10 C. Its charge/discharge profiles show synergistic effects between LMFP and NCM811, improving capacity utilization and energy density. Cyclic voltammetry and variable scan rate tests indicate that the lithium storage mechanism in the LMFP/NCM811 (1:1) blend is mainly pseudocapacitive-dominated, contributing 87.4% of total capacity at 0.6 mV s-1, with this contribution rising at higher scan rates. In summary, blending LMFP@C and NCM811 combines NCM811's high energy density with LMFP's structural stability, offering a promising approach for developing cost-effective, high-performance cathodes for next-generation lithium-ion batteries.

Hydrogel electrolyte have attracted widely interest for aqueous zinc-ion batteries because of their multi-functionality and intrinsic safety. However, the unstable anode/electrolyte interface by dendrite and side reaction (HER) restricted the cycling of Zn anode, especially at high utilization. Herein, we propose an interface engineering strategy by introducing dimethylformamide (DMF) to polyacrylamide (PAM) electrolyte which could construct the polymer-inorganic bilayer solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) to improve the interface stability and compatibility. Internal Zn5(OH)6(CO3)2 provided high modulus to suppress the dendrite physically and external polymer exhibited flexibility to accommodate the volume change of Zn during cycles. Meanwhile, larger polymer clusters were induced by enhanced hydrogen-bond interactions, resulted in higher shear strength and interfacial adhesion. Additionally, DMF regulated the crystal orientation along (100) crystal plane and solvation structure of Zn2+ with PAM, enabling dense deposition and reduced by-products. Consequently, the Zn anode could provide an impressive lifespan (0.5 mA/cm2 @0.5 mAh/cm2, 40 0 0 h; 30 mA/cm2 @15 mAh/cm2, 650 h). More importantly, high utilization (68 %) was achieved using ultra-thin Zn (10 mu m) with superior stability (2 mA/cm2 @4 mAh/cm2, 1200 h). Coupled with iodine cathode, the Zn-I2 cell could provide an initial capacity of 184.5 mAh/g at the low ratio of anode/cathode capacity (N/P: 4.3) and similar to 86.4% retention over 500 cycles. This work provides a promising approach to construct robust interface by hydrogel electrolyte towards practical zinc-ion batteries. (c) 2026 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Chinese Chemical Society and Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences.

The formation of Zn dendrites and the occurrence of the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) at Zn anodes represent two major obstacles that significantly impede the widespread commercialization of aqueous Zn-ion batteries. In this work, we propose sorbitan oleate (Span 80) as a novel amphiphilic electrolyte additive for 2 mol/L ZnSO4 , demonstrating multifunctional performance. The unique ultra-long hydrophobic carbon chains of Span 80 effectively reduce free water molecules at the Zn anode-electrolyte interface, forming a robust hydrophobic interfacial layer that significantly suppresses HER and corrosion reactions. Simultaneously, carbon chains can enhance the desolvation effect of [Zn(H2 O)6 ]2 + , leading to improve rate performance. Additionally, the hydrophilic sorbitan groups in Span 80 selectively adsorb onto active sites of the Zn anode, promoting uniform Zn2 + deposition and suppressing dendrite growth. The optimized Zn||Zn symmetric cell exhibits outstanding cycling stability, sustaining reversible plating/stripping for 570 h at 50 mA/cm2 and the Zn||V2 O5 full cell retains exceptional stability over 20 0 0 cycles at 1 A/g. Our work presents a promising strategy for suppressing interfacial side reactions by constructing a hydrophobic protective layer through the use of ultra-long carbon chain surfactants. This approach offers new insights into enhancing the performance of aqueous Zn-ion batteries. (c) 2025 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Chinese Chemical Society and Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences.

Uncontrolled dendrite growth and low Coulombic efficiency remain major challenges limiting the practical application of rechargeable lithium metal batteries. Here, we introduce potassium hexafluorophosphate (KPF6) as an additive to a commercial 1 m LiPF6-EC/DEC (1:1 vol%) electrolyte, which induces the formation of positively charged small aggregates in which a PF6 - anion is shared between Li+ and K+ solvation structures. Molecular dynamics simulations reveal that the 0.1 m KPF6-containing electrolyte exhibits a higher Li+ diffusion coefficient than in the baseline system, consistent with its enhanced ionic conductivity and transference numbers. Complementary density functional theory calculations show that these small aggregates possess lower solvation energies, facilitating Li+ desolvation, while their reduced LUMO energy promotes LiPF6 decomposition to generate a robust inorganic-rich SEI. Experimentally, the KPF6 additive drives the formation of a smooth, uniform, and ion-conductive SEI on lithium metal, enabling Li & Vert;LiFePO4 cells to deliver superior rate capability and capacity retention. Pouch cell tests further underscore the practical potential of this electrolyte design. These findings highlight the role of small aggregates in solvation structure engineering and provide new insights for the development of high-performance lithium metal batteries.

The rate performance of Zn anodes is a crucial factor for practical zinc-ion batteries; however, concentration gradients and the aggregation of zinc ions at the interface hinder their reversibility. Herein, we use in situ chemical corrosion to construct an artificial solid electrolyte interphase on Zn foil that is composed of an external conducting polymer (PEDOT-SO3H) and an internal layered zinc sulfate hydroxide hydrate (LZHS). The polymer layer provides a capacitive effect and ionic selectivity for Zn2+ enrichment while repelling SO42- due to its negative charge. Spontaneously, the -SO3- group accelerates the desolvation of Zn(H2O)(6)(2+), thereby achieving fast plating kinetics. Moreover, by chemical corrosion and polymer restriction, the preferred orientation of the LZHS along (001) was tailored, guiding the uniform deposition of zinc ions along (002) by lattice-lattice matching. Consequently, the modulated anode (PZn) delivered an excellent rate performance at 20 mA cm(-2) over 1500 h (a cumulative plating capacity of 15 Ah cm(-2)). The full cell with a KxMnO2 cathode delivered an impressive capacity retention of 80.1% at 1 A g(-1) over 1000 cycles. The Ah-level pouch cell further demonstrated the practical applicability of the aqueous zinc-ion batteries. This work offers a feasible strategy for tailoring the functional interface towards practical Zn anodes using a conducting polymer.

Suppressing the rapid recombination of photogenerated carriers is crucial for enhancing the cycling stability of photo-assisted Li-O2 cells. Herein, a magnetic-electric field coupling-aided mechanism is presented to further retard the recombination of photogenerated electrons and holes. This mechanism involves the construction of a ZnO-NiO p-n heterojunction as a semiconductor catalyst, where the intrinsic electric field drives the directional migration of photoinduced electron-hole pairs toward the surfaces of ZnO and NiO, respectively, thereby achieving spatial separation of the carriers. Furthermore, an external magnetic field is applied to exert opposite Lorentz forces on the migrating electrons and holes, effectively suppressing their recombination. Electrons and holes can respectively effectively facilitate the creation and decomposition of Li2O2, enhancing the reaction kinetic performance of ORR and OER. The photo-assisted LOBs based on ZnO-NiO is enabled to exhibit an overpotential of 0.29 V under a magnetic field, with its cycle life increased by 147.67% compared with that of the battery without a magnetic field. This magneto-electric field coupling strategy offers valuable insights for the fields of photocatalysis and photo-assisted metal-air batteries.

The optimization of active sites to enables enhanced sluggish N2 adsorption and activation while suppressing the thermodynamically favored hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is extremely important for N2-to-NH3 conversion by electrocatalytic nitrogen reduction reaction (NRR), but it remains a great challenge. Herein, a highly efficient oxygen vacancy-rich Fe2O3 nanospindles electrocatalyst is successfully constructed via Co incorporation, which induces the attenuation of electron cloud around the Fe site and enhances the adsorption and activation ability of the catalyst to N2 molecules. It is noteworthy that oxygen vacancies in Fe2O3 can be easily controlled by adjusting the amount of Co dopants and the competitive HER process can be effectively inhibited. The optimal Vo:Co-Fe2O3-5 demonstrates remarkably enhanced electrocatalytic activity towards NRR with a high NH3 yield rate of 30.4 μg h-1 mg-1cat. and a large FE of 16.4 % under a potential of -0.5 V vs. RHE. Experimental results certificate that Co doping and oxygen vacancy modification modulate the local electronic structure and prolong the Fe-O bond in Fe2O3 that lead to the facilitated electron transfer and enhanced N2 adsorption and activation. This work provides a simple catalyst-design way for the development of advanced metal oxide materials for future energy applications.

The durability of RuO2 anodes in acidic oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is governed by the coupling between lattice geometry and valence electronic structure of the RuO bond. Here, we develop a lanthanide-driven design strategy in which substitutional lanthanide ions (Ln3+) regulate RuO6 octahedral distortion through ionic radius, thereby tuning O 2p-Ru 4d hybridization and covalency-related descriptors. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations reveal that controlled RuO bond elongation weakens orbital overlap and increases the formation energies of oxygen and ruthenium vacancies, suppressing lattice‑oxygen participation (often associated with the lattice oxygen mechanism, LOM) and favoring the adsorbate evolution mechanism (AEM). Among the series, gadolinium substitution achieves an optimal balance, with an average RuO bond length of 1.99 Å resolved by extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS). In 0.1 M perchloric acid, the optimized catalyst delivers an overpotential of 216 mV at 10 mA cm-2 with a Tafel slope of 56 mV dec-1 and shows only ∼50 mV degradation over 800 h. In a proton exchange membrane water electrolyzer (PEMWE), it sustains 100 mA cm-2 for 120 h with negligible voltage decay. This work establishes lanthanide-regulated covalency modulation as a predictive, bond-level strategy for stabilizing ruthenium-based catalysts in acidic OER.

Double-exchange interaction has been identified as a crucial factor in tuning oxygen evolution reaction (OER) activity of perovskite-type transition metal oxides (ABO3-TMOs). The double-exchange interaction is an electron transfer mechanism mediated by bridging atoms (typically oxygen) and governed by spin alignment. However, the influence of oxygen concentration on the double-exchange interaction and the OER activity of different types of ABO3-TMOs remains unclarified. Herein, a series of ABO3-TMOs thin films with controllable oxygen concentration, including LaNiO3 (LNO), La2/3Sr1/3CoO3 (LSCO), La2/3Sr1/3MnO3 (LSMO), LaFeO3 (LFO) and SrMnO3 (SMO) were prepared on SrTiO3 (STO) substrate with pulsed laser deposition (PLD) under different growth oxygen pressures, yielding epitaxial single-crystal ABO3-TMOs thin films with high (H) or low (L) oxygen concentrations. We showed that by modulating the oxygen concentration, the double-exchange interaction in ABO3-TMOs thin films was regulated, thereby changing the eg electron hopping behavior. Moreover, LNO-H, LSCO-H, LSMO-H, LFO-L and SMO-L demonstrated higher OER activity than LNO-L, LSCO-L, LSMO-L, LFO-H and SMO-H thin films, indicating a strong correlation with the strength of the double-exchange interaction. This study underscores the significance of rationally modulating the double-exchange interaction in ABO3-TMOs thin films via tuning oxygen concentration to enhance OER activity.

The widespread adoption of aqueous zinc-iodine batteries (AZIBs) is hindered by the polyiodide shuttle effect and uncontrolled zinc dendrite growth, both causing rapid capacity fading and reduced cycle life. Quasi-solid gel electrolytes (QSGEs) can address these challenges by creating water-deficient environments but often suffer from low ionic conductivity and Zn2+ transference number (tZn(2+)), limiting reaction kinetics. To overcome these limitations, we developed a polymer ionogel electrolyte (PIGE) where 1-methylimidazolium cations (MIM+) and bis (trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide anions (TFSI-) are polymerized in situ into the network. MIM+ binds to anions, inhibiting their diffusion, while TFSI- sites potentially facilitate continuous hopping pathways for Zn2+ migration. Additionally, the O = S = O groups in TFSI- are suggested to reorganize the Zn2+ solvation structure, promoting de-solvation kinetics. These synergistic interactions enhance zinc salt dissociation, resulting in high ionic conductivity (44.4 mS cm(-1)) and tZn(2+) (0.89). Stable zinc plating/stripping is maintained for 1000 h at 5 mA cm(-2) and 5 mAh cm(-2) in Zn|parallel to Zn cells. Zn parallel to I-2 batteries retain 98.9% capacity after 5349 cycles (corresponding to 487 days) at 1 C and endure -10,000 cycles at 10 C, demonstrating excellent long-term cycling stability. Based on these observations, a model resembling the electrostatic locking-anchoring effect has been proposed which provides new insights for the research and development of zinc-ion QSGEs.

Defective TiO2-based electrocatalysts are regarded as the most promising materials for electrocatalytic nitrogen reduction (eNRR). However, related researches focus on the oxygen vacancy (VO) active sites in the outermost atomic layers, ignoring the influence of subsurface VOs. This restricts further design and optimization of TiO2-based electrocatalysts. Through density functional theory (DFT) calculations, we systematically study the structural, electronic, and eNRR properties of Vos in undoped and transition metal doped TiO2 (101) surface. Three kinds of VOs are constructed, respectively located in the first (VO-1), second (VO-2) and third (VO-2) O atomic layers. Moreover, the metal dopants are also extended from the first to the third Ti atomic layers. We find that the properties of VOs are not solely determined by the initial bonding or local charge of corresponding O atoms, but are jointly regulated by electronic structure reorganization and lattice relaxation. For undoped TiO2(101), the eNRR performance of VO-2 outperforms that of the outermost VO-1 and deeper VO-3, with the smallest defect formation energy (Ef = 5.77 eV) and the lowest eNRR potential-determining step barrier (ΔGPDS = 0.78 eV). Single and bimetallic doping with Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, or V can effectively alter the thermodynamic stability and eNN activity of VO-1, VO-2, and VO-3. Finally, we identify 7 single-dopant and 20 bimetallic-VO synergistic systems that achieve low ΔGPDS (0.45-0.78 eV) and high eNRR selectivity. This work underscores the pivotal role of subsurface VOs and establishes an atomic-scale design paradigm for high-performance TiO2-based NRR electrocatalysts.

Sluggish oxygen evolution reaction (OER) kinetics impede alkaline electrolysis. Here, vertically aligned Rudecorated, Fe-doped Ni3S2 nanowire arrays on Ni foam (Ru-NFS) are synthesized via a one-step hydrothermal route. Distinct from conventional Ni3S2 -> NiOOH systems, we operate in a low-Ru, Fe-co-modulated regime where Ru remains S-ligated and highly dispersed, evidenced by the absence of Ru-Ru scattering in EXAFS. This coordination accelerates NiOOH formation, enhances charge transfer, and mitigates Ru loss, yielding Runormalized activity beyond single-modulated controls. In 1.0 M KOH (iR-corrected), Ru-NFS requires only 206 and 245 mV to reach 10 and 100 mA cm-2, respectively, and sustains stable operation. Mechanistically, COHP analysis shows that Fe substitution and, more strongly, Ru incorporation progressively weaken Ni-S bonds in the precursor, enabling rapid anodic reconstruction to NiOOH. On the reconstructed surface, DOS/PDOS reveal a D-manifold shifted toward EF with increased states, implying higher hole availability and optimized M-O covalency for coupled proton-electron transfer. DFT-CHE at 1.23 V (RHE) identifies *O ->*OOH as the thermodynamic RDS, with Delta G reduced from 0.70 eV (NiOOH) to 0.48 eV (Fe-NiOOH) and 0.38 eV (Ru,Fe-NiOOH). Overall, Ru-Fe co-modulation couples reconstruction control with adsorbate-binding optimization, providing a blueprint for robust high-rate OER anodes.

The structural instability of surface BiOx under cathodic polarization presents a critical challenge for the practical deployment of Bi-based electrocatalysts in CO2 electroreduction (eCO(2)RR). Here, we report a Cr-doped Bi@BiOx catalyst (denoted as 5%Cr-Bi@BiOx), in which chromium incorporation reinforces the Bi-O bonding network and mitigates the irreversible reduction of amorphous BiOx during prolonged operation. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations reveal that Cr doping induces local electronic redistribution from Bi to Cr, resulting in increased Bi p-orbital vacancies that enhance the adsorption strength of the *OCHO intermediate. This electronic modulation, coupled with the stabilization of surface oxygen species, accelerates proton-coupled electron transfer and facilitates selective formate production. As a result, 5%Cr-Bi@BiOx achieves a high formate Faradaic efficiency of 98% at -1.1 V vs. RHE, sustaining a current density of -48 mA cm(-2) over 35 h in H-cell configuration. Notably, it maintains > 93% formate selectivity at -240 mA cm(-2) for 28 h in a gas diffusion electrode system, underscoring its industrial relevance. This study provides mechanistic insights into dopant-enabled phase stabilization and establishes a general design principle for developing robust, oxygen-rich electrocatalysts for efficient and durable CO2 conversion.

ABSTRACT Li–O 2 batteries garner widespread attention owing to their remarkable theoretical specific capacity. Nevertheless, the feasible implementation of the system is hindered by sluggish cathode reaction kinetics and poor anode stability. Herein, the carbon dots (CDs) with ‐OH, ‐NH 2 , and ‐COOH groups are synthesized and employed as electrolyte additives for Li–O 2 batteries. The CDs are well‐dispersed in the electrolyte which promotes the formation of Li 2 O 2 through hydrogen bond‐mediated dissolution, whereas their high catalytic activity simultaneously facilitates Li 2 O 2 decomposition, thereby enhancing cathode reaction kinetics. Additionally, CDs can suppress dendrite growth on the Li anode and reduce dead Li accumulation by improving the properties of the electrolyte, including ionic conductivity, raising the Li + transference number, ensuring strong electronic insulation, and altering the Li + solvation structure. Therefore, the introduction of CDs enables the Li–O 2 battery to achieve a discharge capacity of 5422.2 mAh g −1 and maintain stable cycling performance of 700 h at 100 mA g −1 . This work underscores the remarkable efficacy of CDs electrolyte additive in enhancing the performance of the Li–O 2 battery, providing a new direction for addressing existing challenges of the battery.

Vacancy and strain engineering have been identified as effective approaches for modulating the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) activity of electrocatalysts. Applying external fields like magnetic and light fields to electrocatalysts is also a potential approach to enhance the OER activity. However, the influence of the dual magnetic and light fields on the OER performance of electrocatalysts subjected to both vacancy and strain engineering remains unexplored. Herein, we rationally prepared epitaxial single-crystal LaNiO3 (LNO) thin films as model electrocatalysts on LaAlO3 (LAO) substrates under different oxygen pressures via pulsed laser deposition (PLD), obtaining LNO thin films with compressive strain and tunable oxygen contents. It is found that a volcano-shaped relationship exists between the OER activity and the oxygen content. This relationship originates from the synergistic modulation of both the Ni2+/Ni3+ ratio and the d-band center position in the LNO thin films. Furthermore, the LNO thin films exhibit a higher OER activity under dual magnetic and light fields compared to those under no external fields, irrespective of their oxygen content. The enhanced OER activity under dual magnetic and light fields primarily stems from the generation of photogenerated electron-hole pairs and the formation of triplet-state oxygen species, collectively reducing the energy barrier for the OER process.