Abstract A novel NH2-MIL-53(Al)@CS-EDTA hybrid nanocomposite was synthesized by functionalizing chitosan with EDTA and integrating it with an Al-based MOF for heavy metal removal. Structural and morphological characterizations were performed using FT-IR, XRD, SEM-EDX, N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms, point of zero charge (PZC), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Batch experiments showed maximum adsorption capacities of 31.8, 28.1, and 21 mg·g− 1 for Cu2+, Fe2+, and Ni2+ at pH 6. The adsorption data were best fitted by the Langmuir isotherm and the pseudo-second-order kinetic model under the investigated experimental conditions. The observed adsorption behavior is proposed to involve coordination and electrostatic interactions between the metal ions and the abundant functional groups (–OH, –NH₂, and –COOH) of the composite. The biopolymer MOF composite’s reusability was also evaluated, and even after five consecutive adsorption-desorption cycles, > 90% efficiency was found, indicating acceptable stability over repeated cycles. The novelty of this study lies in the synergistic integration of biopolymer, chelating agent, and MOF into a single, reusable adsorbent with improved properties.

Ultrafiltration (UF) faces the dual challenges of membrane fouling and low small-sized virus removal. This study found that Fe(II)/peracetic acid (F/P) pretreatment significantly reduced irreversible resistance while achieving high virus removal (similar to 5.71 log, with the pretreatment inactivation approximately 3.67 log), thereby breaking the traditional trade-off between high virus removal and high irreversible fouling. From the perspective of floc regulation to interface optimization, and comparing with the conventional Fe(II)/H2O2 (F/H) system, we elucidated the synergistic mechanism of F/P pretreatment through integrated water quality analysis, floc characterization, interfacial thermodynamics, fouling modeling, and Spearman correlation analysis: (i) efficient degradation of hydrophobic organic matter, reducing irreversible fouling; (ii) enhanced membrane hydrophilicity, weakening hydrophobic adhesion and delaying dense fouling layer formation; (iii) formation of a loose, particle-stacked cake layer by iron flocs, trapping viruses within its deep pores, with irreversible retention being the primary contributor to virus removal during UF. Spearman correlation analysis further confirmed that virus removal rate was significantly positively correlated with DOC removal (r = 0.838), polysaccharide removal (r = 0.672), and standard blocking R-2 (r = 0.790), while negatively correlated with irreversible resistance (r = -0.779), reflecting the high oxidation-coagulation intensity of F/P pretreatment simultaneously promoted water purification, fouling mitigation, and virus removal. The extremely low concentration of free viruses in backwash water reduced the biosafety risks of backwash water reuse. This study provides a theoretical basis for developing low-energy, high-safety UF pretreatment technologies.

Over one-fourth of the world's population lacks safe, reliable drinking water access. To ensure adequate water supply, arid communities are increasingly tapping into unconventional water sources, which are often saline and require energy-intensive treatment. For the one billion people who suffer from both lack of water and electricity, incorporating renewable energy can help solve this water-energy nexus challenge. This article provides a comprehensive review of solar-thermal membrane distillation, a desalination and water purification method that can convert source waters of a wide range of salinities to potable water using thermal energy harvested from sunlight. Membrane distillation (MD) is a thermally driven separation process with vapor passage through a porous, hydrophobic membrane. This thermal desalination technology can incorporate abundant, low-grade heat to reduce its energy needs and overall costs. Furthermore, solar-thermal MD's niche application is in treating hypersaline water sources. Herein, we review current lab-scale and pilot-scale studies on solar-thermal MD systems while comparing direct solar-thermal MD, indirect solar-thermal MD, and hybrid solar MD systems as well as solar concentration opportunities. Feedwater in standard solar-thermal MD processes is heated indirectly using high-heat transfer configurations. Comparatively, solar energy directly heats the membrane surface in direct solar-thermal MD. Hybrid solar MD systems convert solar energy into electricity and thermal energy to be stand-alone systems. Current challenges and commercialization limitations of solar MD technology, such as membrane wetting, system scale-up technology, and high energy consumption are also addressed with proposals for possible solutions. We conclude by highlighting successful pilot studies to show where solar-thermal MD is most equipped to meet water and electricity access challenges.

Membrane distillation (MD), a thermally driven separation process using hydrophobic membranes, has emerged as a promising solution for desalination and treating complex water matrices containing organic and inorganic contaminants due to its ability to achieve high rejection for non-volatile solutes and ability to operate on low grade heat sources. This review critically evaluates recent advances in MD for the removal of organic and inorganic contaminants and highlights the fundamental separation mechanisms influenced by membrane properties, feed contaminant type and background composition, temperature, and surface interactions. Key factors such as membrane wettability, volatility, and fouling are discussed alongside emerging antifouling strategies, including nanomaterial incorporation, surface modification, and Janus membrane design. The integration of MD with various pretreatment technologies (e.g., electrocoagulation, advanced oxidation, and crystallization) is presented as a potential avenue to enhance removal efficiency and enable resource recovery. Furthermore, hybrid MD systems that can broaden the application scope of technology, by integrating anaerobic membrane bioreactors or forward osmosis with thermally driven MD processes, reduce energy consumption, and support zero-liquid discharge and circular economy frameworks. MD has been applied across diverse fields, including desalination, brine concentration, wastewater treatment, and resource recovery (e.g., lithium extraction, nutrient crystallization, and radioactive waste remediation), which collectively demonstrate its broad versatility and potential for sustainable water management. This comprehensive review not only summarizes the current literature but also outlines future directions for advancing technology, with emphasis on material innovations, energy efficiency, real-time monitoring, and mechanistic modeling of fouling behavior.

Membrane distillation (MD) is a promising thermally driven desalination technology; however, its practical implementation remains limited by low vapor flux and pronounced temperature polarization. In this study, a thin photothermal coating composed of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and nanostructured carbon black (CB) was spray-deposited onto a commercial porous PTFE membrane to enhance solar-driven MD performance. The resulting PVA-CB layer exhibited strong broadband light absorption and efficient photothermal conversion in the visible-near infrared (Vis-NIR) range. Structural and optical analyses confirmed a turbostratic graphitic structure with a crystallite size of 36.3 nm, a microstrain of 3.44 × 10-4, and an effective direct optical band gap of 3.58 eV determined from Tauc analysis of the dominant π-π* transitions. Under simulated solar irradiation, the modified membrane showed a pronounced increase in surface temperature, enabling enhanced interfacial evaporation. Consequently, the PVA-CB membrane achieved a 45-60% increase in vapor flux compared with pristine PTFE, reaching up to 1.3 L m-2 h-1 at a temperature difference of 40 °C, while maintaining salt rejection above 99% and stable long-term operation. This improvement is attributed to the synergistic effects of CB-induced localized photothermal heating and PVA-enhanced surface hydrophilicity, which collectively reduce temperature polarization and facilitate efficient heat and mass transfer. These results highlight a scalable, cost-effective strategy for fabricating durable photothermal membranes, thereby advancing solar-driven desalination and sustainable water treatment.

In this study, advanced membranes of polysulfone (PSF) were developed for photothermal membrane distillation (PMD) using nanocomposite particles of copper sulfide (CuS) and silver oxide (Ag2O). The Ag2O nanoparticles were synthesized using an eco-friendly method with mango leaf extract and were then integrated with CuS nanoparticles to form the CuS/Ag2O composite. The nanocomposite membranes exhibited enhanced light absorption across the ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared spectra. The addition of the nanocomposite changed the membrane structure from a dense finger-like porous structure to a more porous and sponge-like structure. The composite membranes also showed increased porosity and hydrophobicity, which reduced vapor transport resistance and prevented pore wetting. The membrane performance was evaluated in a vacuum-enhanced membrane distillation (VEDCMD) system. The results indicated that the best performance was achieved with a 1.0 wt% loading of the CuS/Ag2O composite, reaching a water flux of 10.15 L/m2h at a temperature of 40 degrees C under illumination. The membranes also demonstrated excellent performance at various feed temperatures and high salt concentrations, maintaining over 60% of their initial flux even at a concentration of 35,000 ppm. These findings confirm that the CuS/Ag2O composite is an effective photothermal converter, making it a promising solution for solar-powered water desalination.

Rapid-strong oxidation systems cause cell lysis and the release of intracellular substances during the degradation of extracellular organic matters (EOM), deteriorating the treatment efficiency of selected technology (such as sludge treatment). To address these shortcomings of rapid-strong oxidation, a sustained moderate oxidation system was proposed and investigated in this study. For establishing sustained moderate oxidation system, sodium percarbonate (SPC) was chosen as the oxidant while potassium permanganate (Mn(VII)) and ferric chloride (Fe(III)) were selected as the catalysts. Results showed that moderate contents of different reactive oxygen species (ROS) were generated continuously under the sustained release of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Mechanism exploration performed that the oxygen (O2) bubbles and Mn-Fe flocs formed in Mn(VII)-Fe(III)/SPC system interacted with the reaction solution to jointly construct a gas-liquid-solid microenvironment for efficient generation of ROS. The Mn(II)/Mn(IV) and Fe(III) existed in Mn-Fe flocs effectively adsorbed/coagulated organics. Meanwhile, the existed Mn(II)/Mn(III) promoted the surface oxidation of Mn-Fe flocs and the cycle of Fe(II)/Fe (III) in liquid phase, achieving the directional oxidation of organics on the surface of Mn-Fe flocs. The bubbles of O2 drove the contact between H2O2 and Mn-Fe flocs, and were converted into corresponding ROS with oxidizing properties by obtaining electrons. Compared with direct addition of H2O2, Mn(VII)-Fe(III)/SPC increased the organics degradation rate by an additional 14 %. Meaningfully, the potential of sustained moderate oxidation on sludge dewaterability enhancement had been also experimentally confirmed in this study to verify its engineering practicality. The water content decreased from 85 % to 72 % (75.3 % in rapid-strong oxidation group).

The global expansion of reverse osmosis (RO) desalination plants over the past decade has resulted in a significant accumulation of discarded membranes, which are non-biodegradable and environmentally problematic. Repurposing spent RO elements into nanofiltration (NF) or ultrafiltration (UF) membranes offers a sustainable management strategy. In this study, a used RO membrane from a small desalination unit in Hurghada was subjected to cleaning and chemical modification. Surface cleaning with hydrochloric acid (pH 2) and sodium hydroxide (pH 12) effectively removed inorganic deposits, with acid showing higher efficiency. Conversion to NF was achieved by partial degradation of the polyamide layer using oxidizing agents, including sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), and potassium permanganate (KMnO₄), applied at concentrations of 1000–7000 ppm·h. The optimum performance was obtained with 3000 ppm·h NaOCl treatment, yielding salt rejection of 92–95.4

Growing water scarcity and increasing food demand are driving interest in municipal Wastewater Treatment (WWT) for crop irrigation. However, centralised WWT systems require substantial capital and infrastructure investment, which poses challenges for small agricultural communities. Decentralised compact systems are simpler to operate, more cost-effective, and better suited to rural areas. This study presents a novel, compact municipal WWT system specifically designed for crop irrigation. The system utilises four WWT technologies, integrating an ultrafiltration Membrane Bioreactor with mechanical sieving, extended aeration, and a Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor. A detailed sampling and testing methodology was implemented to experimentally evaluate system performance. The results showed significant reductions in major ions, with Total Dissolved Solids decreasing from 2348.8 to 1157.2 mg/L (50.7% reduction), and removal rates ranging from 25 to 98.9% for heavy metal ions from the municipal wastewater. The sanitary biological quality of the wastewater also improved substantially, with coliform and total microbial counts reduced by 81% and 18%, respectively. Overall, the product water met the Egyptian irrigation standards for edible crops, indicating the potential of this compact system as a practical solution for municipal WWT in rural areas.

Membrane distillation (MD) is an energy-intensive desalination technique hindered by high energy consumption. To address this limitation, we selected silver sulfide (Ag2S) Nanoparticles (NPs) for incorporation into a polysulfone (PSF) membrane, aiming to enhance the photothermal membrane distillation (PMD) process. Ag2S was chosen due to its unique photothermal properties, including efficient light absorption and conversion into heat, making it an ideal candidate for improving the thermal efficiency of MD membranes. The Ag2S NPs were synthesized using the Chemical Bath Deposition (CBD) method and characterized through SEM, UV-spectroscopy, FT-IR, and EDX. The NPs were integrated into the PSF membrane at varying concentrations (0.5-2 %). The PSF/Ag2S composite membranes demonstrated significant photothermal properties, with surface temperatures rising from 45.7 degrees C to 52.3 degrees C under light exposure. The water flux also improved from 5.4 L/m2h without light to 7.8 L/m2h with light in the optimal membrane containing 1.5 % Ag2S. Additionally, contact angle (CA) measurements indicated increased hydrophobicity, while liquid entry pressure (LEP) values rose, further enhancing membrane performance. The composite membrane achieved a remarkable salt rejection rate of 99.99 %. These findings suggest that integrating Ag2S NPs into PSF membranes significantly improves energy efficiency, water flux, and desalination performance. This makes it a promising approach for solar-driven desalination, with Ag2S acting as an effective photothermal agent. The study underscores the potential of Ag2S as a sustainable solution for improving MD efficiency, offering a new pathway to tackle global water scarcity.

To address global water scarcity and the high energy demands of traditional desalination, this study explores a sustainable photothermal membrane distillation (PMD) system using polysulfone (PSF) membranes embedded with copper sulfide (CuS) nanoparticles. Chemically synthesized CuS nanoparticles exhibited a band gap of 1.94 eV and crystallite sizes of 18.32 and 28.73 nm, promoting efficient solar-to-thermal conversion. Incorporating 1 wt % CuS into PSF membranes enhanced porosity (20% to 60%), hydrophobicity (contact angle: 76 degrees to 90 degrees), and photothermal response (surface temperature: 43 to 54 degrees C). The optimized membrane achieved a water flux of 8.31 L/m2 h under artificial light, significantly outperforming the pristine membrane (1.92 L/m2 h). A sustained performance under prolonged sunlight confirmed its long-term stability. Structural and compositional analyses (SEM, XRD, FTIR, and XPS) verified uniform CuS dispersion and membrane integrity. This work demonstrates an energy-efficient solar-driven desalination approach, offering a promising route for clean water production while addressing water-energy challenges.

Tackling global water scarcity requires effective desalination with renewable energy. This paper explores direct solar membrane distillation (MD). This technology uses photothermal nanoparticles. These nanoparticles capture sunlight and convert it into heat. This creates a thermal driving force at the membrane surface. This approach improves MD's energy efficiency. It also addresses temperature polarization. Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membranes with a PP backing layer were used. These were coated with membranes containing photothermally activated carbon (AC). The AC was integrated into polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and glutaraldehyde (GA). GA acted as a cross-linker. The goal was to maintain water flow after coating. The performance of the PTFE/PVA-AC/GA membranes was tested. A synthetic saline solution was used. Adding hydrophilic PVA-AC improved the membrane's scaling resistance compared to PTFE. Increased PVA loading decreased water flow. The optimized PVA-AC-GA (0.25 wt% + 1 wt% + 1 wt%) membrane exhibited a stable vapor flux of 0.51 kg m-2 h-1 °C-1, which is comparable to the commercial PTFE membrane (0.58 kg m-2 h-1 °C-1), while providing enhanced photothermal activity and anti-wetting stability under simulated solar illumination. The membrane showed promising performance. They suit solar desalination off-grid for fluids prone to scaling.

In this study, advanced membranes of polysulfone (PSF) were developed for photothermal membrane distillation (PMD) using nanocomposite particles of copper sulfide (CuS) and silver oxide (Ag 2 O). The Ag 2 O nanoparticles were synthesized using an eco‐friendly method with mango leaf extract and were then integrated with CuS nanoparticles to form the CuS/Ag 2 O composite. The nanocomposite membranes exhibited enhanced light absorption across the ultraviolet, visible, and near‐infrared spectra. The addition of the nanocomposite changed the membrane structure from a dense finger‐like porous structure to a more porous and sponge‐like structure. The composite membranes also showed increased porosity and hydrophobicity, which reduced vapor transport resistance and prevented pore wetting. The membrane performance was evaluated in a vacuum‐enhanced membrane distillation (VEDCMD) system. The results indicated that the best performance was achieved with a 1.0 wt% loading of the CuS/Ag 2 O composite, reaching a water flux of 10.15 L/m 2 h at a temperature of 40°C under illumination. The membranes also demonstrated excellent performance at various feed temperatures and high salt concentrations, maintaining over 60% of their initial flux even at a concentration of 35,000 ppm. These findings confirm that the CuS/Ag 2 O composite is an effective photothermal converter, making it a promising solution for solar‐powered water desalination.

Employing light thermal conversion materials is a promising future approach for harnessing renewable energy in various domains, such as solar cells and water evaporation processes. This work focuses on the synthesis of paramagnetic manganese ferrite nanoparticles with partial substitution of Mn by Zn atoms. After conducting physical and chemical investigations to assess their photothermal efficiency, the nanoparticles were used as a photothermal agent. Furthermore, the nanoparticles (NPs) were doped into polysulfone (PSF) membranes for photothermal membrane distillation (PMD) applications. This led to a significant increase in water flux efficiency when exposed to different light sources and temperatures, using saline water of NaCl and sea water. The optimal doping concentration for achieving the best flux results was found to be 0.5 %. The morphology of NPs and membranes were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The X-ray powder diffraction analysis (XRD) confirmed the formation of a single-phase in the samples. Furthermore, the study revealed the crucial functions of feed temperature, operating time, and ionic strength in maximizing the performance of PMD. The findings highlighted that higher feed temperatures and greater sunshine intensity were directly associated with improved membrane performance, suggesting that solar-assisted PMD is feasible for sustainable water production.

This study aimed to advance the recovery of lithium ions (Li+) from salt solutions using hydrogenated titanium oxide (HTO), obtained through the delithiation of lithium titanium oxide (LTO). After delithiation, 88.0 +/- 1.2% of Li content was extracted from LTO, increasing surface area from 2.1-2.8 m2/g to 5.56-7.52 m2/g and reducing particle size from 296.2 +/- 43.14 nm to 95.15 +/- 17.23 nm. HTO's adsorption capacity was examined under three conditions: 1) dispersed HTO in simple Li+ solution (750 mg/L) to determine maximum adsorption capacity 2) dispersed HTO in salt solution where Li+ was present at a realistic concentration (0.71 mg/L) alongside competing ions (Na+ and Mg2+); 3) with HTO present in a membrane coating, to evaluate how immobilization of the material affects the adsorption capacity. Results showed that HTO (50 g/L) achieved a maximum adsorption capacity of 7.2 +/- 0.1 mg/g and a desorption of 6.8 +/- 0.2 mg/g from simple Li+ solution. In salt solutions, HTO exhibited an adsorption of 0.017 +/- 0.0002 mg/g for the Na++Li+ mixture and 0.015 +/- 0.0004 mg/g for Na++Mg2++Li+ mixture. The HTO-coated membrane showed an adsorption capacity of 2.0 +/- 0.4 mg/g and desorption of 1.1 +/- 0.01 mg/g. These results provide important insights into HTO's adsorption capacity in both free and immobilized conditions in various Li+ solutions.

Reverse osmosis (RO) desalination brine poses serious environmental concerns because of high salinity and the presence of contaminants. Addressing these issues requires advanced, and sustainable technologies for effective treatment. This study presents an innovative method for fabricating high-performance cation exchange membranes (CEMs) and bipolar membranes (BPMs) aimed at treating RO desalination brine using electrodialysis with bipolar membranes (EDBM), while simultaneously generating useful acids and bases. The CEM was developed by blending polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) with carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and was incorporated into a BPM structure with a chitosan-based Anion Exchange Layer (AEL). A comprehensive characterization, including SEM, FTIR, Ion Exchange Capacity (IEC), swelling degree, water uptake, and mechanical strength, confirmed significant material enhancements. A pre-treatment of the membranes with ferric chloride (FeCl3) before sulfonation using sulfuric acid boosted the IEC from 0.317 to 0.53 meq/g, outperforming commercial Nafion-117. The system achieved a salt rejection rate of 55.2 %, with acid and base concentrations rising by factors of 19.2 and 9.04, respectively. It also exhibited a low voltage drop of 2.16 V at 90 mA/cm2, superior to previously reported BPM-1 (3.45 V) and BPM-60 (2.73 V). These results highlight the membrane's enhanced energy efficiency, scalability, and potential as a cost-effective solution for sustainable brine management.

The intensifying global demand for lithium necessitates the development of sustainable extraction pathways. Recovery of lithium from reverse osmosis (RO) desalination brine offers a compelling strategy to mitigate resource scarcity while valorising waste streams. This study investigates the application of capacitive deionization (CDI), an emerging electrochemical separation technology, for the selective recovery of lithium from RO brine solutions, emphasizing its low energy consumption and cost-effective operation. A lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4, LMO) sorbent was synthesized via a high-temperature solid-phase method and integrated as the cathodic material in a CDI cell operated at 1.1 V. The system was evaluated using a synthetic brine solution with a Li*/Na* molar ratio of 1:30, representative of typical RO brine compositions. Comprehensive material characterization of the LMO employing scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirmed the successful formation of a spinel-phase structure with heterogeneous morphology of the prepared LMO. Under optimized operating conditions, the system achieved a lithium electrosorption capacity of 16.14 mg g-1 , with minimal sodium uptake (0.02 %), demonstrating remarkable ion selectivity of lithium ions. These findings highlight the potential of CDI as a scalable and sustainable process for lithium recovery from saline waste streams. The integration of LMO-based CDI systems into desalination systems presents a dual-benefit approach, coupling water treatment with strategic resource recovery and advancing the principles of a circular economy.

The present work investigates the influence of incorporating Zinc Oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (NPs) into the substrate layer and modifying the composition of the thin film layer on the morphology and nanofiltration (NF) effectiveness of Polysulfone (PSF) NF membranes. To accomplish this goal, several thin film composite (TFC) membranes were produced and employed for the purpose of extracting salt from water via NF processing. A phase inversion (PI) technique was used to build the PSF supporting membranes by creating casting solutions including PSF polymer, Polyvinyl-pyrrolidone (PVP) as a pore generating agent, and N,N-dimethyl formamide (DMF) as a solvent. ZnO NPs were included into the casting solution at different weight ratios. The synthesis of polyamide (PA) thin films was achieved through interfacial polymerization (IP) between Piperazine (PIP) and trimesoyl chloride (TMC) on the PSF substratums. The work investigated the synthesis parameters for the PA thin layer by studying the effects of immersion durations and monomer concentrations of the aqueous and organic solutions. A subsequent analysis of the TFC NF membranes was conducted using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX)-Mapping Spectroscopy and contact angle metrics. The inclusion of ZnO nanoparticles into the PSF membrane matrix has improved the structure, water-attracting characteristics, and flow rate of the membrane films. The study examined the influence of various operational condition-s, comprising the operating pressure (ranging from 5 to 20 bar), feed concentration (extending from 2600 to 11460 ppm), and the kind of salt in the feed solution (Na2SO4, MgCl2, CaSO4, NaCl). The permeate flux of a Na2SO4 solution has increased from 15 L/m2.h for the original membrane at 5 bar, to 31.2 L/m2.h for the membrane produced under optimal conditions. By increasing the applied pressure to 20 bar, the permeate flux can be further increased to 124 L/m2.h, while keeping the salt rejection consistent at 91-94%.

In this work, we introduce a new composite material consisting of Mn(1-x)ZnxFe2O4 (MZF) and wasted coffee grounds carbon (C). Crucially, the surface chemistry of the composite, which lacks Zn2+ ions in octahedral locations, highlights its distinctive structural characteristics. Before the integration of the carbon composite, the saturation magnetisation of the sample was recorded as 53.073 emu/g. However, it decreased to 45.49 emu/g after the composite was formed and the reaction processes occurred. UV-spectroscopy enabled the measurement of band gap energies, which showed that the band gap energies for ferrite were 2.93 eV and for the MZF/C composite were 2.12 eV. By utilising plasmonic photocatalysis, the MZF/C composite has shown exceptional effectiveness as a high-temperature photocatalyst, specifically in the breakdown of methylene blue (MB) and Eosin (EO) dyes, which are representative of basic and acidic dyes, respectively. The study demonstrated enhanced photocatalytic degradation kinetics under both visible light and sunlight, with sunlight showing superior performance. Over a 120-min period, the ferrite composite achieved a removal efficiency of 89% under sunlight, compared to 68% under artificial light. By utilising plasmonic photocatalysis principles, this work clarifies the structural and optical properties of the MZF/C composite and emphasises its capacity to tackle environmental issues through effective dye degradation mechanisms.