Rapid global changes in climate and habitats lead to shifts in species' geographic ranges. Range contractions experienced by numerous species may result in local extinctions and connectivity disruptions. In some species, range expansions have been observed instead, suggesting the enlargement of suitable habitats and/or adaptations to changing environments. Despite its importance for wildlife management, our understanding of the factors influencing species' spatial responses to rapidly changing environments remains limited. The golden jackal serves as an excellent model to address this knowledge gap, given its ongoing rapid range expansion. In this study, we investigated environmental factors contributing to genetic connectivity and local adaptation across the expanding range of the golden jackal, based on a comprehensive sampling scheme across Eurasia (n = 363), a high-quality set of genomic markers (19,746 SNPs), and a landscape genomics framework. At the continental scale, geographic distance emerged as the predominant factor. At finer spatial scales, genetic connectivity was best explained by climatic predictors, specifically high annual and seasonal variations in precipitation and temperature, which can shape the species' spatial genetic structure by constraining gene flow. Our connectivity models for current and future climatic conditions show that the species' northward expansion is facilitated by changes in these variables in central and northern Europe promoting high connectivity. Precipitation and temperature were also responsible for most local adaptation signals. Given the potential role of hybridization with domestic dogs in shaping range expansion patterns, we investigated the association between environmental conditions and dog admixture proportions. We found no significant trends, indicating a limited effect of dog admixture on habitat choice. Collectively, our findings suggest that the golden jackal has the potential to continue its expansion across Eurasia in response to ongoing global climate change, providing an example of a species that rapidly tracks the expansion of its suitable habitats.

Aim: Mountain vipers belonging to the Montivipera genus represent a fascinating example of neo-endemism found in the high plateaus of Iran, Anatolia and the Caucasus. Given the conservation challenges faced by these species, it is crucial to understand their phylogenetic relationships and suitable habitats in order to implement effective conservation strategies. In this study, we integrated phylogeny and Ecological Niche Modelling (ENM) techniques to investigate the conservation biogeography of mountain vipers. Location: Irano-Anatolian, Caucasus and Levant. Methods: We first reconstructed phylogenetic tree of the species, and then, by using a set of occurrence records of the identified clades and environmental variables we modelled ecological niche of the species using the MaxEnt model and PCA-env analysis. Finally, we conducted a gap analysis to assess the conservation status of the species, taking into account their representation within Protected Areas (PAs) in the region. Results: The results revealed a well-resolved phylogenetic divergence of the species into three main clades and 12 lineages, which corresponded to their geographic distribution. Results of the MaxEnt model showed excellent predictive performance (AUC > 0.9 and TSS > 0.8) for all species. Both ENM analyses demonstrated varying levels of ecological niche conservatism, divergence and convergence across environmental gradients. The gap analysis showed a better representation of mountain vipers within Iran's PAs (20.3% overlap), particularly compared to those in Turkey (2.9%). Main Conclusions: We designate mountain vipers as phylogeographic focal species due to their isolated distribution in the region's mountains and the significant overlap of their suitable habitats with paleontological refugia. We emphasise their significance in promoting PAs and prioritising conservation efforts for the region's biota.

Accurate delineation of biodiversity units is essential for effective conservation, particularly in species complexes with cryptic diversity and fragmented distributions. In this study, we investigated the genetic structure, phylogenetic relationships, and phylogeographic history of Iranian populations within the Vipera ursinii-renardi complex by analysing two mitochondrial genes (cyt b, ND4) and three nuclear loci (PRLR, BDNF, NT3) from 12 individuals sampled across the species' known range. Multilocus phylogenetic analyses revealed two well-supported evolutionary lineages, including a previously unreported northwestern lineage (Lineage NW), which is sister to the Central Alborz lineage (V. ebneri sensu stricto; Lineage CA). Genetic clustering and haplotype network analyses further supported the distinctiveness of these lineages, indicating limited or no gene flow between them. Molecular-clock dating suggests that the divergence between Lineage CA and Lineage NW occurred during the Late Pleistocene, likely driven by climatic oscillations that promoted ecological isolation. Based on reciprocal mitochondrial monophyly, nuclear differentiation, and geographic separation, we recognize Lineage CA and Lineage NW as two evolutionarily significant units in Iran. Recognizing and conserving this cryptic diversity is vital for preserving the evolutionary legacy of Iranian steppe vipers and for guiding effective conservation strategies under increasing environmental and anthropogenic pressures.

Background and purpose: Snake venom contains numerous proteolytic enzymes, including metalloproteases. This study aimed to isolate, characterize the metalloproteinase from Montivipera raddei venom and insert its cDNA into a host cell genome for expressing the protein's potential use as a coagulation factor. Experimental approach: Initially, M. raddei venom was analyzed using SDS-PAGE and ion-exchange chromatography. All purified fractions were assessed using a prothrombin time (PT) assay. Immunoblot analysis and MALDI-TOF/TOF MS spectrometry confirmed the metalloproteinase active domain in the obtained fraction. All of the confirmations were studied using the I-TASSER server. To produce the recombinant enzyme, metalloproteinase cDNA was isolated from the total RNA of the Caucasus viper venom gland tissue and cloned into pEX-A2-H plasmid, containing homologous sequences with CHO-S cell genome. Also, it was confirmed by western blotting and PT test. Findings/Results: Two fractions from M. raddei venom had PT values of 6 and 21 s, respectively. We confirmed the presence of a 25-KDa procoagulant metalloprotease (Met). The results indicated successful expression of the Met protein in the recombinant CHO-S cells. The Met protein was structurally similar to the target in the PDB ID. 2e3x, regulatory subunit of the blood coagulation factor X- and IX-activating enzyme. The Met protein also contained a similar binding domain with 60 amino acids, comparable to those in E. carinatus. and E. pyramidum leakeyi metalloproteinases. Conclusion and implications: The Met protein may be a potent candidate recombinant coagulant drug. Remarkably, the thrombin time for this protein was 3 s.

Decline in population size may lead to decrease in genetic diversity, increase in inbreeding rate and also decrease in adaptation ability of populations against environmental changes. Therefore, monitoring genetic indices is one of the main tools for understanding the stable situation of species. In this study, the genetic diversity and population structure of the Goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) in Fars province (Bamou National Park and Basiran No-Hunting Area) were evaluated using 45 scat samples and 15 microsatellites. Indices of genetic variation, inbreeding, structuring, and bottleneck were estimated. Baesed on the results, the observed heterozygosity ranged from 0.34 to 0.95, indicating a relatively high level of genetic diversity in both populations. Additionally, the genetic differentiation index (FST) was estimated at 0.056, revealing a significant level of genetic differentiation between the two regions. This pattern may be resulted from gene flow limitation, geographic distance, and landscape resistance. There was no sign of bottleneck in the populations. Although moderate genetic variation was found, the presence of genetic structuring highlights the importance of improving habitat connectivity and considering the concept of management units in future efforts. These results can provide scientific bases for making conservation strategies and sustainable management

To control the increasing growth of rat populations in metropolitan areas, several factors need to be considered to mitigate the risks posed by rats. Identifying rat density hotspots with more efficient methods and assessing people's experiences and attitudes toward them can be useful in prioritizing rat control efforts. We focused on the two most common species of rats (Rattus rattus and Rattus norvegicus) in the metropolis of Karaj, the fourth most populous and the largest immigrant-friendly city in Iran. The urban rat infestation is one of the problems caused by the high population growth in Karaj and the insufficient development of urban infrastructure and waste collection. It has led to discontent and public concern about rat infestations and there is a need to address the associated threats. We applied the Kernel Density Function and Optimized Hotspot Analysis to the presence points of the aforementioned types of rats and found that while Optimized Hotspot projects a macro view of hotspots at the city level, the Kernel Density Function prioritizes neighborhoods for initial actions. In addition, social network analysis with complementary regression models was conducted to determine people's experiences. The results show that fear of rats and concern about their presence form the basis of people's attitudes toward rats and lead to feelings of hatred. Moreover, economic harm reinforces people's motivation to control or eliminate this species. Despite their unpleasant feelings toward rats, people have a great influence on the growth of rat infestations by creating food sources through improper waste disposal. They prefer to use traps and poison instead of disposing of household waste and following the principles of cleanliness as preventive measures and believe that the lack of proper garbage collection by the municipality is the most important reason for the growth of rat populations. They are not sufficiently aware of their position in addressing this crisis. Our findings argue for the formation of a stronger network between the relevant authorities and residents, especially those living in the hotspots, to educate them about their role in rat control and to gain their cooperation in improving the city's waste management system.

The edaphic and environmental changes in Bujagh grasslands have led to a gradual decline in the wintering waterbird populations in the associated national park. This has particularly affected forage habitats for birds, especially migratory geese. Our aim was to identify the reasons for the loss of habitat quality by examining the structure of the plant community and the edaphic factors that have been instrumental in shifting the grass community pattern to a Rush–Rubus type along the succession route. Bujagh National Park is surrounded by marine, riverine fresh water, and lagoon habitats, and the seasonal floodings of the Sefidrud and Ushmak rivers impact the grassland area along the deltaic pathway to the Caspian Sea. We used the TWINSPAN classification function to extract plant groups and their dominant species. Subsequently, we analyzed land cover changes in the study area over two times (2010 and 2020) to identify alterations in the coverage of main plants and land uses. Following the evaluation of unconstrained ordination methods and the selection of NMDS ordination, we compared the dominant species of groups to the main edaphic predictors. The results indicated that the chemicals and heavy metals in the soil did not play a direct role in the shift from grassland to Rush–Rubus plant type. However, these elements could have a significant impact on the evolution of the structure and the competitive capability among the main dominant species of the grass group. In conclusion, the dominance of the Rush–Rubus type is likely related to other unmeasured environmental and anthropogenic factors that support and enhance their reproductive attributes and herbal proliferation in the grassland territory.

Snakebite envenomation is a life-threatening condition and antivenoms are used as the most effective treatment. Venom obtained from snakes in long-term captivity showed some variations in comparison to the venom of the wild snakes. The objective of this study is to compare the venom of the Pseudocerastes persicus under long-term captivity and wild conditions as well as the antivenom obtained from these venoms. We have analyzed venom samples and produced trivalent antivenoms using the venom of long-term captive (LTC) or recently wildcaptured (RWC) Pseudocerastes persicus, and RWC Macrovipera lebetina, and Echis carinatus. The HPLC analysis revealed that the RWC snakes' venom had three peaks that were not present in the LTC snake's venom. Further analysis using MALDI-TOF and MS/MS showed that the fraction with a retention time (RT) of 14 min contained a toxin from the Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitor (KUT) class, while the fraction with RT 21 a peptide identified within the snake venom metalloproteinase (SVMP) class. The third peak was identified as a sphingolipid. Interestingly, the in vivo preclinical tests showed no significant differences in the effectiveness of the antivenoms. which could be due to the cross-immunogenicity or cross-reactivity between different toxins in the venom. According to our results, small variations in the venom composition of a species do not lead to a decrease in the efficacy of the polyvalent antivenom.

The current rapid climate change and human-induced alteration of landscapes and animal communities have led to range expansions in numerous species, raising concerns about potential negative impacts on genetic diversity, biotic interactions and hybridization with related species in newly colonized areas, and the need to adjust management plans. The recent explosive range expansion of golden jackals in Europe, now extending to the Arctic Circle, provides an opportunity to assess the consequences of this process at a broad geographical scale. We analysed the genome-wide diversity of golden jackals from nearly the entire species range, including recently colonized areas. Grey wolves and free-ranging dogs sympatric with golden jackals were also analysed to test for introgression among these canids. Our results showed that golden jackals expanded from Asia to south-eastern Europe at the end of the Pleistocene, while in more recent times they naturally broadened their range in central and northern Europe from at least two distinct southern populations. At the northern edge of the range and in the recently expanded area, golden jackals showed evidence of admixture with dogs. Further monitoring of introgression rates and phenotypic effects of this process is crucial to ensure they do not facilitate the synurbization process. No reduction in genetic diversity was observed at the expansion front, most likely due to complex expansion routes, involving multiple waves and source populations, and introgression of genetic variants from dogs. We propose the development of management and legal plans that focus on transboundary cooperation considering the observed genetic diversity and structuring.

The Middle Eastern endemic genus Asaccus comprises Southwest Asian leaf-toed geckos. To date, this genus includes 19 species of leaf-toed geckos (seven in Arabia and 12 in the Zagros Mountains). Despite a recent study on the taxonomy and phylogeny of Asaccus species in Iran, controversies still remain surrounding the phylogeny and phylogeography of the genus. Here, we used an integrative approach to determine the phylogeny and phylogeography of Asaccus species using two mitochondrial genes (12 S and Cyt b), and one nuclear gene (c-mos). Our results uncovered 22 distinct lineages, demonstrating a significant cryptic diversity that challenges the current morphological classifications of these species. Phylogenetic analyses reinforce the monophyly of the Asaccus group, positioning A. montanus as a basal lineage, which supports a deep evolutionary divergence dating back to the Late Oligocene, approximately 27.94 million years ago. This genetic diversity also highlights the impact of historical climatic and geographical changes on species diversification. The findings advocate for an integrative approach combining both molecular and morphological data to resolve species identities accurately, thereby enhancing conservation strategies to protect these genetically distinct lineages.

Species distribution models (SDMs) are practical tools to assess the habitat suitability of species with numerous applications in environmental management and conservation planning. The manipulation of the input data to deal with their spatial bias is one of the advantageous methods to enhance the performance of SDMs. However, the development of a model parameterization approach covering different SDMs to achieve well-performing models has rarely been implemented. We integrated input data manipulation and model tuning for four commonly-used SDMs: generalized linear model (GLM), gradient boosted model (GBM), random forest (RF), and maximum entropy (MaxEnt), and compared their predictive performance to model geographically imbalanced-biased data of a rare species complex of mountain vipers. Models were tuned up based on a range of model-specific parameters considering two background selection methods: random and background weighting schemes. The performance of the fine-tuned models was assessed based on recently identified localities of the species. The results indicated that although the fine-tuned version of all models shows great performance in predicting training data (AUC > 0.9 and TSS > 0.5), they produce different results in classifying out-of-bag data. The GBM and RF with higher sensitivity of training data showed more different performances. The GLM, despite having high predictive performance for test data, showed lower specificity. It was only the MaxEnt model that showed high predictive performance and comparable results for identifying test data in both random and background weighting procedures. Our results highlight that while GBM and RF are prone to overfitting training data and GLM over-predict nonsampled areas MaxEnt is capable of producing results that are both predictable (extrapolative) and complex (interpolative). We discuss the assumptions of each model and conclude that MaxEnt could be considered as a practical method to cope with imbalanced-biased data in species distribution modeling approaches.

The Persian leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) is an endangered species widely distributed across Iran. Rough estimates indicate 550-850 Persian leopard individuals inhabit the country, which comprises more than two thirds of its global population. Population monitoring of this large carnivore in Iran is one of the main objectives of current conservation planning. Therefore, adopting a more diversified methodology to achieve reliable, cost-effective, and pragmatic measures is urgently needed. We conducted a study for individual identification of the Persian leopard in Parvar Protected Area via fecal sampling and molecular tools and attempted to test the feasibility of this approach. We used 12 previously reported polymorphic microsatellite loci, of which only five were qualified for geno-typing analysis. Finally, nine leopard individuals were identified. We measured the ability of the five loci in distinguishing individuals by P( ID)sib. The cumulative observed probability of identity and probability of identity for sibling individuals were estimated to be 0.005 and 0.05, respectively. Data presented on spatial distribution of leopards in this study could help better understand the behavioral ecology and conservation biology of the species. Moreover, our findings will assist future research in developing methodologies for large-scale studies and providing data for effective wildlife conservation.

Large carnivores have long fascinated human societies and have profound influences on ecosystems. However, their conservation represents one of the greatest challenges of our time, particularly where attacks on humans occur. Where human recreational and/or livelihood activities overlap with large carnivore ranges, conflicts can become particularly serious. Two different scenarios are responsible for such overlap: In some regions of the world, increasing human populations lead to extended encroachment into large carnivore ranges, which are subject to increasing contraction, fragmentation, and degradation. In other regions, human and large carnivore populations are expanding, thus exacerbating conflicts, especially in those areas where these species were extirpated and are now returning. We thus face the problem of learning how to live with species that can pose serious threats to humans. We collected a total of 5,440 large carnivore (Felidae, Canidae, and Ursidae; 12 species) attacks worldwide between 1950 and 2019. The number of reported attacks increased over time, especially in lower-income countries. Most attacks (68%) resulted in human injuries, whereas 32% were fatal. Although attack scenarios varied greatly within and among species, as well as in different areas of the world, factors triggering large carnivore attacks on humans largely depend on the socioeconomic context, with people being at risk mainly during recreational activities in high-income countries and during livelihood activities in low-income countries. The specific combination of local socioeconomic and ecological factors is thus a risky mix triggering large carnivore attacks on humans, whose circumstances and frequencies cannot only be ascribed to the animal species. This also implies that effective measures to reduce large carnivore attacks must also consider the diverse local ecological and social contexts.

Identifying factors that influence human-wildlife conflict and people's attitudes toward carnivores can help managers mitigate conflicts and improve wildlife management. In this study, we used a questionnaire and conducted 230 interviews to evaluate some aspects of conflicts between local communities and brown bears (Ursus arctos) in Mazandaran Province in the Alborz Mountains in northern Iran between 2009 and 2019. The questionnaire included the variables age group, education level, occupation, and source of income as well as experience with attacks and damage to agricultural properties, livestock, and beehives. Damage by brown bears to orchards was reported by 44% of respondents and to beehives by 32%; these were the main conflict causes. Brown bear attacks on humans occurred while humans were hunting, sheepherding, and collecting medicinal plants. About 30% of respondents were opposed to the presence of bears in nature because of economic losses they suffered due to bears, and people's attitudes toward predators were mainly influenced by economic factors. Understanding different patterns of human-brown bear conflicts can help reduce dangerous encounters and, consequently, is essential for informing conflict mitigation measures in the area. Moreover, education programs on brown bear behavior and implementation of compensation methods can reduce human-brown bear conflicts.

The Caucasian pit viper Gloydius caucasicus is one of six snake species that is frequently reported as a cause of venomous snakebite in Iran. We present the results of successful captive breeding of 20 Caucasian pit vipers (10 males and 10 females) collected in August 2018 from the Lar National Park, northern Iran. Mating and copulatory behaviours were observed from mid-June to early July 2019. Five of the ten females gave birth with parturition occurring from 10 to 13 September, when 17 vipers were born in litter sizes ranging from 2 to 5. The present captive breeding programme has been successful and shows potential for both venom production and support for conservation by reducing the demand for wild caught specimens.

This study examines the effects of the change in the shape of landscape patches, known as landscape structure, on ecological susceptibility, which is defined using the object-oriented method. The aim is to determine whether ecological susceptibility is influenced by the shape of the landscape patches in the southern basin of the Caspian Sea. The multivariate linear regression approach is applied to discover the extent to which the mean, median, and weighted average of the landscape structure metrics can explain the total variations of the ecological susceptibility. To determine the optimal models, an intermodel comparison is conducted using the Akaike information criterion. Sensitivity and uncertainty analyses were performed to determine how sensitive ecological susceptibility is to changes in the variables of the models and how they behave under varying conditions. The models (0.64≥r2≥0.27, p ≤ 0.05) indicate that the landscape structure metrics can be applied to predict ecological susceptibility. Examining the mean, median, and weighted average of the landscape metrics in estimating ecological susceptibility also reveals that the models made by the mean and median values have less uncertainty than those developed by the weighted average. The results show that the regularity or irregularity in the shape of the landscape patches and the degree of contiguity of the land use/land cover patches can significantly affect ecological susceptibility. Closed deciduous broad-leaf forest patches, closed mixed forest patches, and open mixed forest patches can be considered crucial land use/land covers to estimate ecological susceptibility.

Abstract Given the complex and dynamic interrelationships of the underlying factors contributing to conflicts associated with wolf presence and persistence in human‐dominated landscapes, it is often difficult to clearly identify the ultimate causes of these conflicts. In this study, a system dynamics modeling approach was adopted to simulate human–wolf conflicts in an area with the greatest number of recently fatal wolf attacks on humans in Iran. Data used to build the model were obtained from questionnaire surveys and satellite tracking of wolves. We simulated changes in ecological and social factors that may influence conflicts under different assumptions. Our findings indicate that, in this context, the proximity of wolves to human settlements is one of the determining factors leading to increased wolf attacks on humans and livestock. When the distance between wolf territories and human settlements increases, the likelihood of both wolf incidents and retaliatory killings are expected to decrease. Effective communication of information regarding wolves across local communities is expected to result in a positive shift in attitudes toward the species, as well as a decrease in fear, which in turn will affect the rate of conflicts. Improper disposal of carcasses of domestic animals by the locals, dumping of waste in open dumpsites close to villages, and leaving children unattended on agricultural fields are expected to increase the recurrence of conflicts. We strongly urge Hamadan provincial office of environment and nongovernmental organizations to initiate communication programs to raise awareness on the human–wolf conflict and its mitigation. This includes how to properly handle livestock carcasses at safe distances from human settlements. Furthermore, design and construction of sanitary landfills in the vicinity of each village, as well as providing education on how to properly use these sites could help reduce risky conflicts.