Objective:To assess and describe pet owners' motivation and decision-making styles related to pet weight loss programs. Methods:The study population consisted of dog and cat owners whose pets were participants in the University of Tennessee's Veterinary Obesity Center (UTVOC) or Kansas State University Veterinary Health Center's Healthy Weight Clinic (KSUHWC), presenting for either initial or recheck appointments. In this prospective study, participants completed an online survey utilizing modified versions of the Situation Motivational Scale (SIMS) and Weight Loss Motivation Questionnaire (WLMQ) to assess motivation and the General Decision-Making Style (GDMS) to assess decision-making styles. The questionnaire was available between January 23, 2024, and June 16, 2024. Results:There were 53 survey respondents (UTVOC, n = 31; KSUHWC, 22). According to the SIMS results, identified regulation was the most common motivational style, and, according to the GDMS results, rational was the most common decision-making style in our study. The WLMQ revealed that health factors were the most important motivational factors for pet owners, compared to appearance-related factors. Conclusions:In this study, the most common types of motivation and decision-making styles among pet owners were identified regulation and rational decision-making. The main reason pet owners were motivated to help their pets lose weight was due to concerns about their pet's health. Clinical Relevance:Clinicians can use the study results to better understand the motivational and decision-making styles of pet owners whose pets are enrolled in weight loss programs. Future directions could assess whether aligning veterinary interactions with pet owners' preferred styles improves weight loss program outcomes.

Objective:To evaluate the effect of cholestyramine on the fecal dysbiosis index (DI) and the fecal excretion of conjugated and unconjugated bile acids (BAs) in dogs. Methods:This was a prospective, pre-post experimental study. Individually housed research colony dogs were screened for inclusion. Included dogs were deemed healthy based on a lack of gastrointestinal signs and evaluation of annual blood work and fecal flotation. Cholestyramine was orally administered (53 to 75 mg/kg/d of active drug) to healthy dogs for 12 weeks. Dogs were maintained on the same maintenance diet for the entirety of the study. Feces were collected at 5 time points: 12 and 6 weeks prior to treatment, time 0, and 6 and 12 weeks during treatment. Repeated-measures 1-way ANOVAs were used to test differences over time for fecal conjugated and unconjugated BAs (time 0 and weeks 6 and 12 of treatment) and the fecal DI (all time points), including its individual bacterial taxa. Results:12 dogs completed the study. No adverse events following cholestyramine treatment were observed. The DI was significantly lower following cholestyramine treatment compared to before treatment and was not outside of the reference range. Cholestyramine administration significantly increased total fecal BAs, which was largely driven by a significant increase in secondary unconjugated BAs. Conclusions:Cholestyramine increased the total fecal BA excretion in colony dogs and had little to no clinical effect on the DI. Clinical Relevance:These findings support the investigation of the use of cholestyramine in controlled clinical trials of dogs with suspected BA diarrhea.

BACKGROUND:Protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) is a common cause for referral to veterinary nutrition services (VNS). Data are sparse detailing dog presentation, dietary recommendations, and response. OBJECTIVE:Describe the characteristics of dogs with PLE presenting to a VNS, dietary interventions, and response to therapy. ANIMALS:Fifty-eight client-owned dogs with PLE. METHODS:Descriptive retrospective study. Clinical signs and concentrations of albumin, globulin, and cholesterol were compared at initial diagnosis (T0), presentation to VNS (T1), 14-90 days after VNS consultation (T2), and most recent recheck (T3). Diet history and VNS recommendations were categorized by diet form and nutritional characteristics. Continuous variable normality, survival analysis, and median survival time were evaluated using the Shapiro-Wilk test and Kaplan-Meier and Brookmeyer-Crowley methods, respectively. RESULTS:The most commonly reported reason for referral was nutritionally balancing a diet that controlled clinical signs (27/58, 47%). At T1, 52% (30/58), 43% (25/58), 14% (8/58), and 9% (5/58) had diarrhea, weight loss, vomiting, and decreased appetite, respectively. The reported mean ± standard deviation albumin, globulin, and cholesterol concentrations at T1 were 2.40 ± 0.64 g/dL, 2.43 ± 0.71 g/dL, and 129 ± 63 mg/dL, respectively. Ultra-low fat, novel protein homemade diets were the most common diet trialed before (35/58, 60%), fed at (33/58, 57%), and recommended (28/58, 48%) at T1. Median survival time was 1661 days (lower 95% confidence interval limit, 686 days). CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE:Dogs with PLE referred to a VNS commonly presented after achieving partial clinical improvement and were most often fed an ultra-low-fat homemade diet.

ABSTRACT Background Alternative dog diets, such as home‐cooked and raw, have grown in popularity. Claims regarding health benefits for these diets have limited supporting evidence. Objectives To evaluate whether feeding home‐cooked, commercial raw, or homemade raw diets is associated with health conditions compared to extruded diets. Animals Twenty‐seven thousand four hundred seventy‐eight dogs. Methods Cross‐sectional, survey‐based study. We analyzed a large cross‐sectional dataset (n = 27 478) of dogs fed homemade cooked (n = 1214), commercial raw (n = 961), homemade raw (n = 329), or extruded (n = 24 974) diets. We investigated associations between diet and 13 owner‐reported health condition categories. Logistic regression was used for the analysis of all health conditions. Results Controlling for sex, age, and body size or breed, a home‐cooked diet was associated with higher odds of gastrointestinal (adjusted odds ratio (aOR): 1.4; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.2–1.7), renal (aOR: 1.3; CI: 1.1–1.6), and hepatic disease (aOR: 1.6; CI: 1.2–2.0) compared to an extruded diet. A commercial raw diet was associated with higher odds of respiratory disease (aOR 1.7; CI: 1.3–2.3) compared to an extruded diet. Conclusions Analysis of cross‐sectional data can only suggest effects of diet on health and are most useful for hypothesis generation or for testing existing hypotheses.

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Oral consumption of Pep19 (TM), a 10 amino acid intracellular peptide, has been associated with weight loss in rodents and humans via induction of nonshivering thermogenesis. This study aimed to test its safety and tolerance in dogs. Eight healthy adult neutered university owned beagles (4 female and 4 male) were individually housed in runs and fed an extruded kibble in a quantity historically associated with weight stability. They were administered Pep19 (TM) (5 mg/dog/day, 2.06 - 3.14 mg/kg/day) as a once daily oral dose for 28 days. Health screening, including physical examination, body weight, body condition score (BCS), complete blood count, chemistry, total thyroxine, thyroid stimulating hormone, and urinalysis were collected at baseline, day 14, and day 28. Faecal score, appetite, and overall animal temperament and condition were assessed daily. At baseline, average age, weight, and BCS were 3.8 +/- 0.3 years, 12.68 +/- 2.11 kg, and 6.4 +/- 0.7/9, respectively. There were no adverse effects and all blood and urine analyses remained normal. At study termination, average weight, and body condition score (BCS) were 12.53 +/- 2.01 kg, and 5.6 +/- 0.7/9, respectively. Despite no changes in diet or calorie intake, seven of the dogs lost between 0.7% and 3.8% of their body weight ( p <0.01); this was associated with a reduction in body condition score ( p <0.05). This initial study shows that Pep19TM is safe for dogs. Future clinical research should investigate its utility as a new approach to reduce excess body fat in dogs.

Chronic pancreatitis in dogs is typically managed with a low-fat diet. Human research suggests that consumption of medium-chain triglycerides (MCT) may lessen pancreatic enzyme release compared to consumption of long-chain fatty acids (LCFA). Twelve healthy adult colony dogs were fed a meal of cod and rice with either 3% metabolizable energy (ME) fat (control), high MCT (25% ME MCT oil, 25% ME butter), high saturated LCFA (50% ME butter), or high unsaturated LCFA (50% ME canola oil) in a 4-period by 4-treatment crossover design. Serum concentrations of canine pancreatic lipase immunoreactivity, gastrin, cholesterol, triglycerides, and serum activities of amylase and DGGR lipase (1,2-o-dilauryl-rac-glycero-3-glutaric acid-(69-methylresorufin) ester lipase) were measured at times 0 (fasted), 30, 120 and 180 minutes post-prandially. Following a 3-or 4-day wash-out period, each dog was assigned a new diet and the process was repeated for all treatments. Data were analyzed as a repeated-measures mixed model ANOVA. Post-hoc pairwise comparisons were run using Tukey-Kramer adjusted p-values. Shapiro-Wilk tests were used to evaluate residual normality. All statistical assumptions were sufficiently met. Statistical significance was defined as P<0.05. Of the markers tested, only serum triglyceride concentrations were affected by treatment, with consumption of high MCT resulting in lower triglycerides than both LCFA groups at times 120 and 180 minutes (P<0.0001). As expected, the high MCT group had higher triglycerides compared to the control group (P<0.0001). The type of dietary fat consumed had little acute impact on most markers of exocrine pancreatic stimulation in healthy dogs.

Chronic idiopathic enteropathy is a clinical condition defined by the exclusion of infectious, metabolic or neoplastic causes of gastrointestinal signs and is categorised by a response to treatment including management with diet change, immunosuppressant medication or interventions that directly target the microbiome (e.g. antibiotics, faecal transplantation or probiotics). Animals that fail these therapies are categorised as non-responsive or refractory chronic idiopathic enteropathy. This specific categorisation implies that nutritional intervention is only needed for a subset of patients with enteropathy. However, often dogs with chronic idiopathic enteropathy are malnourished, have nutrient malabsorption or have gastrointestinal inflammation that occurs as a result of a breakdown in tolerance to luminal antigens including microorganism or dietary components. Thus, all dogs with chronic idiopathic enteropathy benefit from a nutritional assessment and targeted nutritional intervention. Among dogs presenting for chronic idiopathic enteropathy, the response rate to diet alone is roughly 50% in the referral population giving the impression that the overall response could be even higher especially when more than one nutritional intervention is attempted and strict adherence is maintained. The objectives of this review article are to outline the nutritional approach to a dog with chronic idiopathic enteropathy, including the nutritional assessment, and to highlight areas for nutritional intervention.

OBJECTIVES:The objectives of this study were two-fold: (1) to determine if a feeder system providing individualized food access and automatic dispensing of meals makes weight-loss programs in multi-cat homes easier for cat owners; and (2) to assess if feeding six meals daily reduces food-seeking behavior and increases calorie requirements vs two meals per day. METHODS:Adult cats with body condition scores (BCSs) of 7/9 or greater underwent a weight-loss plan for up to 6 months using a traditional feeding bowl with two meals per day (B2) or an automatic feeder with two meals (A2) or six meals (A6) per day. Cats were weighed at weeks 0, 2, 4, 6, 10, 14, 18, 22 and 26 and food intake was adjusted to maintain weight-loss rates between 0.5% and 1.5% body weight per week. Owner questionnaires were completed at each study visit. RESULTS:Twenty-three cats were included in the study. Cats fed from the automatic feeders were more likely to reach ideal body condition (P = 0.006), with 83.2% of cats in A6, 40% of cats in A2 and no cats in B2 achieving a BCS of ⩽6/9. Owners of cats fed from automatic feeders reported the weight-loss plan was easier vs owners of cats fed from bowls (P = 0.01). Owners using the automatic feeders also reported fewer incidences of certain food-seeking behaviors. Neither percent body weight lost per week nor calorie intake per kg differed between groups. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE:Feeding six instead of two meals daily did not result in faster rates of weight loss or the need to increase calorie intake to maintain appropriate rates of weight loss. However, use of an automatic feeder that provided separated, portioned meal feeding made the weight-loss program easier, reduced food-seeking behaviors and improved the overall success of the weight-loss plan.

The guidelines discuss the components of a systematic approach to nutritional management of dogs and cats. A nutritional assessment, including a body condition score and muscle condition score, is a screening evaluation that should ideally be performed at every examination. Individualized nutritional recommendations, based on the nutritional assessment, should be designed to achieve and maintain an appropriate body weight and meet nutritional requirements. Communicating nutritional recommendations to clients is a challenging aspect of nutritional management because pet owners may interpret the practice team's guidance as advocacy for a particular pet food brand or a judgment of the client's ability to properly care for the pet or of the owner's own nutritional status. The guidelines discuss approaches for effective, nonjudgmental communication of dietary recommendations to clients and strategies to increase acceptance of and adherence to veterinary nutrition recommendations. Other pet nutrition topics of current interest include recommendations for particular pet life stages, breeds, and disease conditions; risk factors for nutritional deficiencies and obesity; and considerations for home-prepared diets.

The guidelines discuss the components of a systematic approach to nutritional management of dogs and cats. A nutritional assessment, including a body condition score and muscle condition score, is a screening evaluation that should ideally be performed at every examination. Individualized nutritional recommendations, based on the nutritional assessment, should be designed to achieve and maintain an appropriate body weight and meet nutritional requirements. Communicating nutritional recommendations to clients is a challenging aspect of nutritional management because pet owners may interpret the practice team’s guidance as advocacy for a particular pet food brand or a judgment of the client’s ability to properly care for the pet or of the owner’s own nutritional status. The guidelines discuss approaches for effective, nonjudgmental communication of dietary recommendations to clients and strategies to increase acceptance of and adherence to veterinary nutrition recommendations. Other pet nutrition topics of current interest include recommendations for particular pet life stages, breeds, and disease conditions; risk factors for nutritional deficiencies and obesity; and considerations for home-prepared diets. (J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 2021; 57:153–178. DOI 10.5326/JAAHA-MS-7232) AFFILIATIONS From Red Bank Veterinary Hospital, Tinton Falls, New Jersey (M.G.C.); Academy of Veterinary Nutrition Technicians, Lafayette, Indiana (K.M.B.); Department of Population Medicine (J.B.C.) and Hill’s Pet Nutrition Primary Healthcare Centre (T.D.), Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada; The Downing Center for Animal Pain Management, LLC, Windsor, Colorado (R.D.); Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine, Knoxville, Tennessee (M.M.); and Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio (V.P.). CONTRIBUTING REVIEWERS Angela Rollins, DVM, PhD, DACVN, Small Animal Clinical Sciences, University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine, Knoxville, Tennessee Megan Shepherd, DVM, PhD, DACVN, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Blacksburg, Virginia Correspondence: marthagcline@gmail.com (M.G.C.) * These guidelines are supported by generous educational grants from Hill’s Pet Nutrition, Inc., Purina® Pro Plan® Veterinary Diets, and Royal Canin®. They were subjected to a formal peer-review process. † M. G. Cline is the chair of the AAHA Nutrition and Weight Management Guidelines Task Force. x T. Durzi is the representative for the Primary Care Veterinary Educators. These guidelines were prepared by a Task Force of experts convened by the American Animal Hospital Association (AAHA) and were subjected to a formal peer-review process. This document is intended as a guideline only, not an AAHA standard of care. These guidelines and recommendations should not be construed as dictating an exclusive protocol, course of treatment, or procedure. Variations in practice may be warranted based on the needs of the individual patient, resources, and limitations unique to each individual practice setting. Evidence-based support for specific recommendations has been cited whenever possible and appropriate. Other recommendations are based on practical clinical experience and a consensus of expert opinion. Further research is needed to document some of these recommendations. Because each case is different, veterinarians must base their decisions on the best available scientific evidence in conjunction with their own knowledge and experience. AAFCO (Association of American Feed Control Officials); ACVN (American College of Veterinary Nutrition); BCS (body condition score); BF% (body fat percentage); BW (body weight); CKD (chronic kidney disease); DCM (dilated cardiomyopathy); DEXA (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry); DHF (diet history form); HPP (high-pressure processing); MER (maintenance energy requirement); MCS (muscle condition score); RER (resting energy requirement); WSAVA (World Small Animal Veterinary Association); USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) The AAHA website (aaha.org/nutrition) contains supporting information and resources for practice teams. a 2021 by American Animal Hospital Association JAAHA.ORG 153

To provide the best dietary recommendations to maintain optimal patient health, veterinarians must be able to assess a patient's nutritional status and offer necessary diet adjustment recommendations. Because obtaining accurate diet histories and answering owner questions about specific diet options can be time-consuming, this article summarizes efficient methods to complete this process. Short case illustrations of common nutrition calculation equations and an example diet history form are included. Members of the entire veterinary team can be involved with the assessment process to reduce the veterinarian’s workload, while improving the quality of information obtained and the recommendations made for the pet.

The aim of this 29-week randomized, positively and negatively controlled study was to investigate whether a nutraceutical containing 1 g leucine and 13 mg pyridoxine can enhance weight loss while maintaining lean muscle mass in obese dogs. Twenty-four healthy, 2-year-old beagles were initially divided into obesification (n = 18) or ideal body weight groups (n = 6). After obesification, the 18 dogs were divided into three weight loss groups and fed one of the following over 12 weeks: nutraceutical with canned adult diet (CAD; ObN), placebo with CAD (ObP), or a canned therapeutic weight loss diet (WLD). Dogs in the ideal body weight (IBW) group were fed maintenance calorie requirements with CAD over 12 weeks. Based on MANOVA, ObN and WLD lost similar amounts of total weight (3.6 ± 0.9 vs. 4.4 ± 1.1 kg, respectively) and fat mass (3.1 ± 0.6 vs. 3.9 ± 0.8 kg, respectively) after 12 weeks of treatment, and more than ObP (1.1 ± 1.2 kg weight; 0.9 ± 1.0 kg fat; p < 0.0001). These data show the nutraceutical is a promising option for successful weight loss in dogs. Maintenance levels of CAD were able to induce weight loss without risk of hypo- or anorexia, or the need to switch diets or restrict energy intake.

Objective To compare the total daily activity time, walking time and running time using food-dispensing toys versus bowls in a group of client-owned, primarily indoor dogs. Materials and Methods A two-way, two period, randomised repeated measures mixed-effects crossover study performed on 26 client-owned, primarily indoor dogs. Results Toy feeding increased average daily total activity time by 12% and walking time by 26%. Average daily total activity time and walking time were reduced by 8 and 7% respectively with each increase in year of age. Gender, body condition and muscle condition had no significant effect on average daily total activity or walking time. Toy feeding, time, their interaction, age, gender, body condition and muscle condition had no significant effect on average daily running time. Clinical Significance Feeding toys may be helpful during weight loss programs to achieve the goal of increasing daily exercise duration in dogs that need to lose weight.

Canine atopic dermatitis (AD) is a common skin disease. The goal of this study was to evaluate food designed to improve skin barrier function and lower inflammation to reduce pruritus and clinical severity in client-owned atopic dogs. The food contained an antioxidant blend to reduce oxidative stress, plant polyphenols to stabilize mast cells, and polyunsaturated fatty acids to improve skin health and reduce inflammation. Seventeen dogs were included in the analysis. Initially 48 adult atopic dogs were enrolled and exclusively fed a dermatologic food for 8 weeks in a non-controlled, open-label study. Thirty-one dogs were excluded for the following reasons: oral and topical medication changes (n = 17), missing data (n = 4), fatty acid supplementation (n = 3), food refusal (n = 3), dropped out (n = 3), and owner concerns (n = 1). Using a scale from 0 (normal) - 4 (severe), veterinarians evaluated the presence and severity of clinical signs of atopy at weeks 0, 4, and 8. Pet owners also rated their pet’s clinical signs of atopy on a scale from 0 (not present) - 10 (present continuously) at weeks 0, 4, and 8. Compared with initial baseline scores (median 19, range 3–69), the total veterinarian scores were significantly lower at weeks 4 (median 11, range 1–15) and 8 (median 7, range 3–46) (p < 0.05). Similarly, owner assessments showed significant improvements in the least squares mean (LSM) from baseline to 4 weeks (itching, redness, licking, and scratching) continuing to 8 weeks (itching, redness, and scratching) (p < 0.05). In this open, non-controlled study evaluating a dermatologic diet in seventeen client-owned dogs, owner and veterinarian assessments showed statistically significant reductions in clinical scores designed to measure severity of atopic dermatitis. While these results show promise for the management of canine atopic dermatitis, controlled clinical trials are also needed to affirm our findings.

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE:Pet owners want dietary recommendations from their veterinarian. Providing a brief nutritional assessment for every cat at every visit will result in better medical care and build trust with clients.CLINICAL CHALLENGES:Examination time is limited, and it can be challenging to ensure appointments are efficient, yet thorough. A range of practical assessment tools is available that can assist with this process.PATIENT GROUP:Every cat can benefit from a screening nutritional evaluation as the fifth vital assessment (after temperature, pulse, respiration and pain assessment). Identifying patients with nutritional risk factors or nutrition-responsive diseases should prompt a more in-depth review of dietary needs.AUDIENCE:This article is aimed at all veterinary health professionals and is accompanied by videos demonstrating the body condition scoring process for a series of cats ranging from ideal body weight through to obese.EVIDENCE BASE:Information in the review is drawn from the current scientific literature, as well as the clinical experience of the authors.