The current prevailing perception is that human impacts on the biological realm have been overwhelmingly negative. Here, we test this narrative by considering the consequences for aspects of floristic diversity of the 'Black Death era' (1300-1400 ce), where one third of Europe's population died within half a decade. Based on evidence from 109 pollen records spanning the Common Era, we find increasing floristic diversity from 0 to ~1300 ce as human populations increased, followed by rapid and substantial diversity reductions during the famine- and disease-driven human mortality events of the 'Black Death era'. As human populations recovered following the mortality shock, diversity also recovered. Strikingly, it was landscapes characterized by cereal cultivation that generated both the overall Common Era increases and the Black Death era declines in diversity. The highest diversity levels were achieved in human-generated, mosaic landscapes, highlighting the integral role of human action in biodiverse European landscapes.

Aim: It is widely reported that aspects of present-day global biodiversity are declining, with humans largely to blame. However-perhaps paradoxically-in Europe, floristic diversity and human populations have grown in tandem for millennia. Disturbance intensity and habitat heterogeneity potentially explain this phenomenon, though we lack understanding of how human land use intensity affected biodiversity at numerous spatial scales over the Holocene. Here, we examine the relationships between anthropogenic vegetation change and floristic diversity over the last 12 millennia in Europe, at multiple spatial scales. Location: Europe. Time Period: The Holocene (11,700-100 cal yr BP). Major Taxa Studied: Plants. Methods: We examined the spatio-temporal dynamics of, and relationships between, floristic richness, evenness and compositional turnover with an index of anthropogenic vegetation change since 11,700 cal yr. BP, analysing 7853 pollen samples from 213 records (sites). We evaluated how changes to the proportional site occupancies of human-associated and other taxa related to diversity patterns. Results: (1) Floristic richness, evenness, and compositional turnover increased from 9000 years ago to 1850 CE. (2) Temporal increases in richness and evenness were positively associated with the anthropogenic vegetation index in the majority of vegetation zones and sites, whereas compositional turnover was only associated with the anthropogenic index at the site level. (3) Holocene site occupancies of all human-associated taxa were positively associated with biodiversity gains, whereas the results for other taxa (that were not associated with people) were mixed. Main Conclusions: Following the onset of warmer Holocene conditions, floristic diversity initially declined, while subsequent increases were positively associated with human impacts over the vast majority of Europe. From the mid-Holocene onwards, farming populations increasingly disturbed European landscapes-perhaps replicating the now-lost megafaunal disturbance regimes-to produce patchy and increasingly diverse vegetative communities, the legacies of which are still present today.

The transition to farming in the coastal environments of southern Scandinavia remains a key conundrum in European prehistory. This region was heavily exploited by Late Mesolithic communities of the Erteb & oslash;lle culture, complex hunter-fisher-gatherers who flourished for some 1500 years prior to the arrival of farming at around 4000 BCE marking the start of the Neolithic period. Extensive genetic and isotopic analyses of skeletal remains suggests that the arrival of farming is marked by a rapid demographic change and that incoming populations of 'farmers' had little reliance on marine resources. In contrast, frequent archaeological finds of shell middens and fishing gear in the Early Neolithic supports evidence for continuity in the use of marine resources across the transition. To assess this apparent paradox, focusing on the Danish evidence, we explore the spatiotemporal trends in the density of some 1500 radiocarbon dates using new informatics tools and modelling strategies. We indeed find strong archaeological indicators of sustained and even intensified patterns of coastal exploitation across and beyond the transition; shell middens, fishing implements, and aquatic residues in ceramics continue well into the Neolithic. Using an agent-based demographic model, we demonstrate how small differences in fertility could rapidly dilute signals of coastal resource use in the context of a growing Neolithic population. More broadly, we suggest that complex palimpsests of archaeological remains and biological information from human remains can only usefully be interpreted through the lens of demography.

Oysters (Ostreidae) play a pivotal role in the health and productivity of marine ecosystems. Their unique ability to filter water, provide habitat, and contribute to nutrient cycling has remained underused in many parts of Europe following the destruction of vast oyster beds in the 19th and 20th centuries. The burgeoning field of oyster restoration for aquaculture has recognized the potential of these bivalves in promoting ecosystem resilience and enhancing biodiversity. Restoring oysters to previous levels requires the establishment of ecological baselines that ideally take into account the long- term changes of animal behavior as well as the surrounding environment prior to significant human baseline archives and provide exclusive insights into past ecosystems. Here, we use demogrowth rate dataset of mollusks yet. Through the analysis of size as well as ontogenetic data show definitive influence of oyster size-age structure through human harvesting the metrics for long- term sustainable harvesting of oysters across environmental and projects and valuable context in mitigating the impact of modern climatic change.

Humans have caused growing levels of ecosystem and diversity changes at a global scale in recent centuries but longer-term diversity trends and how they are affected by human impacts are less well understood. Analysing data from 64,305 pollen samples from 1,763 pollen records revealed substantial community changes (turnover) and reductions in diversity (richness and evenness) in the first similar to 1,500 to similar to 4,000 years of the Holocene epoch (starting 11,700 years ago). Turnover and diversity generally increased thereafter, starting similar to 6,000 to similar to 1,000 years ago, although the timings, magnitudes and even directions of these changes varied among continents, biomes and sites. Here, modelling these diversity changes, we find that most metrics of biodiversity change are associated with human impacts (anthropogenic land-cover change estimates for the last 8,000 years), often positively but the magnitudes, timings and sometimes directions of associations differed among continents and biomes and sites also varied. Once-forested parts of the world tended to exhibit biodiversity increases while open areas tended to decline. These regionally specific relationships between humans and floristic diversity highlight that human-biodiversity relationships have generated positive diversity responses in some locations and negative responses in others, for over 8,000 years.

Shell middens are intentional anthropogenic accumulations in which marine or terrestrial mollusks play an important role. In many such accumulations, shell remains provide the structure for all or some of the deposits and thus provide a preservation environment predominantly influenced by the chemical buffer and shelter the hard carbonate mollusks provide. For these reasons, such accumulations contain valuable records of not only shellfish consumption and ecology but also a variety of other archaeological materials that would not be preserved otherwise.

This paper explores tool-using activities undertaken in and around the earliest known evidence of post-built structures in Britain. Microwear results associated with at least three structures identified at the Early Mesolithic site of Star Carr, North Yorkshire, are examined as a means of identifying activity zones associated with the diverse stone tools used to process a variety of materials (e.g. wood, bone, antler, plant, hide, meat, fish). With 341 lithic artefacts analysed, this research represents the first microwear study focused on the post-built structures at Star Carr. A combination of spatial and microwear data has provided different scales of interpretation: from individual tool use to patterns of activity across the three structures. Different types of tool use observed have aided interpretations of possible activity areas where objects were produced and materials were processed. Zones of activity within one of the structures suggest that the working of some materials was more spatially restricted than others; even where there are high densities of flint deposition, spatial patterns in tool-using activity were observed. From this, it is interpreted that social norms and behaviours influenced the spatial organisation of different spaces. Our results demonstrate the importance of combining microwear analysis with GIS to explore function and variability in the use of Mesolithic structures—providing new insights into their role as social spaces.

Tim Schadla-Hall was Reader in Public Archaeology at the Institute of Archaeology until his death in January 2023 (Figure 1). Over 250 of his friends and colleagues attended a memorial at UCL on 28 April 2023. Six colleagues from the different spheres of Tim's life share their words from that day.

The form and macroscopic wear of Mesolithic awls has been used to infer function, which has become an aspect of established typologies. However, verification of form/function relationships are needed to ensure typologies are robust. This paper presents the results of GIS and microwear analysis of 54 flint awls excavated from the Early Mesolithic site of Star Carr, UK, in conjunction with results from experimental research on awl use. Results expand on previous findings that awls were used for a range of activities at Star Carr, reflected in the different worked contact materials identified; including mineral, wood, bone, and hide. The experimental programme provided important insights into macroscopic tip modification of awls working with different contact materials for different lengths of time. Rates of tip snapping were found to be high in the Star Carr sample. GIS plots of awl location integrated alongside the microwear results show that the majority of awls were recovered from the west of the site, with clusters composed of different contact materials. The proximity of hide and shale working may suggest the production of clothing with appliqué beads. The combination of microwear, experimental archaeology, and GIS is applicable to other Mesolithic sites and holds potential to expand our knowledge of the spatial structuring of tool-using behaviours. Moreover, combined use of these methods has enabled greater understanding of awl typologies: providing a means to independently assess the relationship between tool morphology and use.

Star Carr is a world renowned site first excavated in the late 1940s by Grahame Clark.These excavations revealed organic remains which are incredibly rare, though there are some parallels with sites in Germany and Denmark.The evidence from Star Carr has been debated over the decades, but in 2004 new excavations commenced with the aim of answering some of the questions which had been posed about this important Mesolithic site.One of the alarming discoveries was that the site had deteriorated badly.However, some organic materials remained, though in a very fragile condition.Some of the most spectacular of these are large wooden platforms which had been constructed on what would have been the margins of the lake.In addition, 'house' structures were discovered for the first time on the dry land.With a scientific programme including Bayesian modelling and environmental sampling it has been possible for the first time to construct a picture of life in the Mesolithic at Star Carr through time (Milner et al. 2018a; b).

The extensive peat bogs of Southern Scandinavia have yielded rich Mesolithic archaeological assemblages, with one of the most iconic artefacts being the bone point. Although great in number they remain understudied. Here we present a combined investigation of the typology, protein-based species composition, and absolute chronology of Maglemosian bone points. The majority of the bone points are made from cervids and bovines. However, changes both in species composition and barb morphology can be directly linked to a paucity of finds lasting nearly 600 years in Southern Scandinavia around 10,300 cal BP. We hypothesize that this hiatus was climate-driven and forced hunter-gatherers to abandon the lakes. Furthermore, the marked change in bone points coincides with a change in lithic technology. We, therefore, propose that the Maglemose culture in Southern Scandinavia is fundamentally divided into an Early Complex and a Late Complex.

This article offers corrections to three published inscriptions, from ancient Oinoanda (no. 1), Olbasa (no. 2), and Maionia (no. 3). In no. 1, the name and patronymics of an athletic victor are proposed to be Aurelius Aisimos, son of Aratos alias Hermaios, son of Thoas, and he is acclaimed with the title pleistonikes, “multiple victor” rather than hieronikes, “sacred victor”. In no. 2, the cognomen of the dedicant of an inscribed altar for the Sebastoi is re-read as Protes. Finally, in no. 3, a confession stele for a man cured of a broken leg, the syntax of the text is restored and elucidated by the emendation of a single letter.

Understanding the resilience of early societies to climate change is an essential part of exploring the environmental sensitivity of human populations. There is significant interest in the role of abrupt climate events as a driver of early Holocene human activity, but there are very few well-dated records directly compared with local climate archives. Here, we present evidence from the internationally important Mesolithic site of Star Carr showing occupation during the early Holocene, which is directly compared with a high-resolution palaeoclimate record from neighbouring lake beds. We show that-once established-there was intensive human activity at the site for several hundred years when the community was subject to multiple, severe, abrupt climate events that impacted air temperatures, the landscape and the ecosystem of the region. However, these results show that occupation and activity at the site persisted regardless of the environmental stresses experienced by this society. The Star Carr population displayed a high level of resilience to climate change, suggesting that postglacial populations were not necessarily held hostage to the flickering switch of climate change. Instead, we show that local, intrinsic changes in the wetland environment were more significant in determining human activity than the large-scale abrupt early Holocene climate events.

Birch (Betula sp.) bark is a versatile multipurpose material that has been utilised by hunter-gatherers across the globe in many ways, including food preparation and storage, construction material for mats, lining storage pits, shelter, transportation, baby care, fishing net floats, paper, decorative items, grave goods, medicine and as a source of adhesive. These functions and many others have been documented in the ethnographic and archaeological record (Vogt 1949; Croft and Mathewes 2014). The birch bark that was uncovered during the recent excavations was typically extremely fragile and easily subject to damage. The bark of birch trees possesses lenticels: small corky elongated horizontal structures where a minimal amount of gas exchange occurs. The lenticels were still visible on all the birch bark artefacts examined, although some were disintegrated, leaving only their outline in the bark. Authigenic crystal growth was visible with the naked eye on several bark artefacts. Based on microscopic observations of a small sample of the crystals removed from the bark, the crystals are consistent with microcrystals previously identified with confocal Micro-Raman spectroscopy as gypsum (Croft 2017). Microscopic analysis of a resin-impregnated and cross-sectioned birch bark roll also revealed framboidal pyrite and fungal hyphal growth between the layers of birch bark. Together, these mineral and fungal factors have acted to delaminate and degrade the condition of the bark. However, despite the issues with deterioration, a number of interesting discoveries were made: a possible mat composed of layers of birch bark, a possible container, two composite torches, 30 pieces of birch bark as well as 161 birch bark rolls (Figure 30.1). The first three artefacts are significant because artefacts such as these were not identified during the original excavations undertaken by Clark. The recovery and detailed examination of the birch bark rolls has also been important, largely because Clark had not recorded charring on any of the birch bark rolls that he found. However, 41% of the birch bark rolls, including those held in museums from the original excavations, exhibited signs of charring. This chapter presents the analysis of the birch bark, experimental work and the wider context for birch bark artefacts in the European Mesolithic record.

Star Carr has a long history of research, the nature of which has often reflected, and indeed stimulated, broader trends within Mesolithic archaeology. Following the initial discovery of the site by Moore and the excavations by Clark, Star Carr was the subject of extensive reinterpretation and debate. However, it was not until the mid1980s that new excavations were carried out at the site, under the auspices of the Vale of Pickering Research Trust. Though these were initially undertaken to refine the site’s palaeoenvironmental record, they also led to the unexpected discovery of a timber platform and small quantities of archaeological material, leading to further small-scale excavations in the following years. The results showed that Star Carr was far larger than Clark had assumed, with clear differences in the patterns of activity across the site, and that it had been occupied over a period of centuries. These findings as well as the impasse in debates over site function and seasonality ultimately led to the current project.

This contribution directly relates to the paper published by Wheeler in 1978 entitled ‘Why were there no fish remains at Star Carr?’. Star Carr is arguably the richest, most studied and re-interpreted Mesolithic site in Europe but the lack of fish remains has continued to vex scholars. Judging from other materials, the preservation conditions at the site in the late 1940s/early 1950s should have been good enough to permit the survival of fish remains, and particularly dentaries of the northern pike (Esox lucius L., 1758) as found on other European sites of this age. The lack of evidence has therefore been attributed to a paucity of fish in the lake. However, new research has provided multiple lines of evidence, which not only demonstrate the presence of fish, but also provide evidence for the species present, data on how and where fish were being processed on site, and interpretations for the fishing methods that might have been used. This study demonstrates that an integrated approach using a range of methods at landscape, site and microscopic scales of analysis can elucidate such questions. In addition, it demonstrates that in future studies, even in cases where physical remains are lacking, forensic techniques hold significant potential.

Please note: these ebook files are very large. Users downloading to mobile devices, or with an internet connection with limited bandwidth, should view and download chapters individually using the dropdown menu below. This first volume of Star Carr provides an interpretation of the Star Carr site, one of the most important Mesolithic sites in Europe. Discovered in the late 1940s by John Moore and then excavated by Grahame Clark from 1949-1951, the site is famous in the archaeological world for its wealth of rare organic remains, including significant wooden artefacts. However, since the original excavations there has been much debate about how the site was used: was it a residential base camp, a hunting camp or even a ritual site? The 2003-2015 excavations directed by Conneller, Milner and Taylor aimed to answer these questions. In use for around 800 years, the Star Carr site is much larger and more complex than ever imagined. The excavations show that Mesolithic groups were highly invested in this place and continued to occupy the site despite changes in climate. The findings include the oldest evidence for ‘houses’ in Britain, large wooden platforms along the edge of the lake, antler headdresses and a unique, engraved shale pendant which represents the earliest form of Mesolithic art in Britain. There is evidence for activity areas, such as crafts and tool repair associated with structures, an axe factory, as well as a number of caches. New finds of antler frontlets have increased our understanding of the diversity of human interactions with animals. “If these do not get a gong, something will have to be done about archaeology book awards.” Mike Pitts, British Archaeology Despite the degradation, these excavations have provided a new understanding of life in the Early Mesolithic, particularly enhancing our understanding of how important wood (a material rarely recovered) was for Mesolithic people. The findings challenge many of the preconceived views of this period in terms of the character and scale of activity and the degree of investment in a particular place in the landscape. Volume 1 focuses on an interpretation of the site, while volume 2 of Star Carr provides detail on specific areas of research. Readers may prefer to download and cite from the PDF version of this book. This has a specific DOI and has a fixed structure with page numbers. Guidance on citing from other ebook versions without stable page numbers (Kindle, EPUB etc.) is now usually offered within style guidance (e.g. by the MLA style guide, The Chicago Manual of Style etc.) so please check the information offered on this by the referencing style you use. Further information on the order process