Compulsive behaviors are observed in a range of psychiatric disorders, however the neural substrates underlying the behaviors are not clearly defined. Here we show that the basolateral amygdala-dorsomedial striatum (BLA-DMS) circuit activation leads to the manifestation of compulsive-like behaviors. We revealed that the BLA neurons projecting to the DMS, mainly onto dopamine D1 receptor-expressing neurons, largely overlap with the neuronal population that responds to aversive predator stress, a widely used anxiogenic stressor. Specific optogenetic activation of the BLA-DMS circuit induced a strong anxiety response followed by compulsive grooming. Furthermore, we developed a mouse model for compulsivity displaying a wide spectrum of compulsive-like behaviors by chronically activating the BLA-DMS circuit. In these mice, persistent molecular changes at the BLA-DMS synapses observed were causally related to the compulsive-like phenotypes. Together, our study demonstrates the involvement of the BLA-DMS circuit in the emergence of enduring compulsive-like behaviors via its persistent synaptic changes.

The basal ganglia network has been implicated in the control of adaptive behavior, possibly by integrating motor learning and motivational processes. Both positive and negative reinforcement appear to shape our behavioral adaptation by modulating the function of the basal ganglia. Here, we examined a transgenic mouse line (G2CT) in which synaptic transmissions onto the medium spiny neurons (MSNs) of the basal ganglia are depressed. We found that the level of collaterals from direct pathway MSNs in the external segment of the globus pallidus (GPe) ('bridging collaterals') was decreased in these mice, and this was accompanied by behavioral inhibition under stress. Furthermore, additional manipulations that could further decrease or restore the level of the bridging collaterals resulted in an increase in behavioral inhibition or active behavior in the G2CT mice, respectively. Collectively, our data indicate that the striatum of the basal ganglia network integrates negative emotions and controls appropriate coping responses in which the bridging collateral connections in the GPe play a critical regulatory role.

Macrophages play an important role in both the innate and adaptive immune responses. These include phagocytosis, killing of microorganisms, antigen presentation, and induction of immune cytokines and antimicrobial genes. Macrophage activity is reported to be controlled by diverse exogenous antigenic or endogenous metabolic molecules, and the underlying mechanisms are well documented in human and mouse macrophage cells. Bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is known to be one of the most potent stimuli activating macrophages through the toll like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling pathway. There are other antigenic molecules, such as muramyl dipeptide (MDP) and outer membrane protein A (OmpA), that are also known to activate immune cells. On the other hand, short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) such as acetate and butyrate are produced by gut microbiota and control host energy metabolism and signal transduction through GPR receptors. However, there are few studies demonstrating the effects of these molecules in macrophages from domestic animals, including domestic pigs. In this study, we attempted to characterize gene expression regulation in porcine macrophages (PoM2, Pig Monocytes clone 2) following treatment with LPS, MDP, OmpA, and two short chain fatty acids using porcine genome microarray and RT-PCR techniques. A number of novel porcine genes, including anti-microbial peptides and others, appeared to be regulated at the transcriptional level. Our study reports novel biomarkers such as SLC37A2, TMEN184C, and LEAP2 that are involved in the porcine immune response to bacterial antigen LPS and two short chain fatty acids.

Store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) channels composed of Stim and Orai proteins play a critical role in diverse biological processes. Upon endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mediated calcium (Ca(2+)) depletion, Stim proteins oligomerize with Orai to initiate Ca(2+) influx across the plasma membrane. The ubiquitin-like (UBL) and ubiquitin-associated (UBA) domains of ubiquilin 1 are involved in the degradation of presenilin and polyglutamine proteins. Through screening of Orai1 interaction partner(s) that might have an effect on SOCE, ubiquilin 1 was identified as a target of Orai1. However, the UBL and UBA domains of ubiquilin 1 were dispensable for this interaction. Additionally, ubiquilin 1 and Orai1 colocalized in the cytosolic compartment. Ubiquilin 1 increased the ubiquitination of Orai1, resulting in the formation of a high-molecular-weight form. MG132, a proteasome inhibitor, failed to block the degradation of Orai1, whereas bafilomycin A, a lysosome inhibitor, prevented Orai1 degradation. Confocal microscopy studies demonstrated that a fraction of Orai1 colocalized with ubiquilin 1 and the autophagosomal marker LC3. Because Orai1 is a constituent of SOCE, we determined the effect of ubiquilin 1 on Orai1-mediated Ca(2+) influx. As we expected, intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization, a process normally potentiated by Orai1, was downregulated by ubiquilin 1. Taken together, these findings suggest that ubiquilin 1 downregulates intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization and its downstream signaling by promoting the ubiquitination and lysosomal degradation of Orai1.