This work extensively studied the vasculature of mice mammary fat pads (BALB/c and C57BL/6) with special reference to haematogenous drainage routes. Mammary fat pads were five pairs (first cervical, second and third thoracic, fourth abdominal and fifth inguinal), bilaterally symmetrical, extending laterally and continuously with the subcutaneous fascia. The superficial cervical artery and vein primarily accomplished the blood vasculature of the first mammary fat pad, while the lateral thoracic and external thoracic arteries and veins supplied the second and third mammary fat pads. The superficial cervical vein (found parallel to the superficial cervical artery) drained into the external jugular vein. The lateral thoracic artery and external thoracic artery branched almost at the same level as the axillary artery (branch of subclavian artery), the latter being more medial in position. However, in some specimens, the branching of both arteries appeared to be at the same level, and their origins were indistinguishable. The lateral thoracic vein that was parallel to the lateral thoracic artery drained to the axillary vein close to the drainage of the external thoracic vein. The lateral thoracic, superficial caudal epigastric, iliolumbar and external thoracic arteries and veins vascularized the fourth mammary fat pad and displayed anastomosis among themselves. The iliolumbar vein (found parallel to the iliolumbar artery) drained into the inferior vena cava. The superficial caudal epigastric vein (found parallel to the superficial caudal epigastric artery (SCaEA)) drained into the femoral vein. Unlike humans, the internal thoracic artery and vein did not participate in the vasculature of mammary fat pads. The SCaEA and vein supplied blood and drained the fifth mammary fat pad. The anatomical continuity of the fourth and fifth mammary fat pads provided common drainage for both mammary fat pads. The BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice strains studied did not differ in topography and size of mammary fat pads. The vascular supply and drainage of the mammary fat pads also did not differ in the strains studied. Only minor variations could be noted in the small veins draining into the lateral thoracic vein. Lateral tributaries seen in the terminal end of the lateral thoracic vein were absent in the C57BL/6 mice.

The digital cushion in cattle, comprised of fat and connective tissues, plays a critical role in supporting hoof integrity and mitigating lameness. However, little is known about its proximate composition in different age groups and its association with claw horn disruption lesions (CHDL). In this study, digital cushions were collected from cattle at a slaughter facility and categorised into four groups, viz. heifers, cows of first to third parities, cows beyond third parity, and cows with CHDL. Proximate composition analysis revealed significant variations in moisture content, total ash, protein, fibre, and fat among these groups. Heifers exhibited the highest protein content, possibly attributed to the prevalence of elastic fibres. In contrast, cows in their first to third parities displayed the highest fat content, indicating fat deposition with maturity. Animals suffering from CHDL had the lowest moisture and fat content in their digital cushions. These findings can contribute to our understanding of digital cushion health and its potential role in preventing CHDL, enhancing the welfare of cattle, and maintaining their productivity.

The present study was conducted to evaluate biochemical parameters like serum calcium, phosphorus and alkaline phosphatase during long bones fracture healing in six dogs, which were stabilized with string of pearls (SOP) plate. Statistical analysis revealed no significant variation (P<0.05) in these parameters during the entire period of healing and the values were within the normal range.

The present study was conducted on the testes of six healthy adult Large White Yorkshire pigs. Parenchyma of testes of adult boars was surrounded by a thick fibrous testicular capsule composed of inner tunica vasculosa, middle tunica albuginea, and outer visceral layer of tunica vaginalis. Tunica vasculosa was prominent and characterised by loose connective tissue contained numerous blood vessels. Tunica albuginea was composed of irregular connective tissues made up of collagen, elastin and reticular fibres. Visceral layer of tunica vaginalis was found as outer thin layer of testicular capsule comprised of mesothelium and connective tissue layer. Connective tissue layer was blended with underlying connective tissues of tunica albuginea.

In the present study, the morphometric aspects of the hoof of Indian hog deer (Hyelaphus porcinus), a small sized ungulate was investigated.Toe length, toe height, toe angle, sole length, sole width, heelbulb height and heel bulb width were the morphometric parameters observed in the study.Above parameters of lateral and medial claws of both forelimbs and hindlimbs were recorded separately.There is a statistically significant correlation between the body weight of hog deer and the different morphometric measurements of hooves.The average toe length of forelimb was 3.09±0.23cm and hindlimb was 2.815±0.127cm.The average toe height of forelimbs and hind limbs were 1.84±0.14cm and 1.747±0.15cm respectively.Toe angle was maximum in right lateral claw of hindlimb (40.8±2.48°) and minimum in right medial claw of forelimb (37.5±1.76°).Maximum sole length was recorded in the left lateral claw of forelimb (3.48±0.09cm) and minimum in the right medial claw of hindlimb (3.18±0.17cm).Maximum sole width was recorded in left lateral claw of forelimb (1.53±0.16cm) and minimum in the left medial claw of hindlimb (1.4±0.20 cm).Toe length, toe height, heelbulb length, sole length, sole width of forelimb measured higher values than that of hind limb.Toe angle, heel bulb height and heel bulb width of hind limb exhibited higher values than forelimb.

Kidneys of six each of adult broiler chicken and broiler ducks were used in the present study. In the histological studies, the kidneys of all studied birds showed two zones, the cortex and medulla. The medulla occupied only a small portion of the kidney. In chicken a greater number of distinct cone-shaped medullary lobules were seen among cortical lobules while in duck they were lesser in number, more rounded in outline and were not cone shaped as in chicken. In the case of chicken more than one cortical lobule drained into a medullary lobule. Mammalian type of nephrons that occupied the juxta medullary region presented loop of Henle that was located within the medullary cone. Collecting ducts from different medullary lobules united together to form several large collecting ducts within the medulla which in turn united to form ureteral branches.

DNA barcoding is a technique for characterizing species of organisms using a short DNA sequence from a standard and agreed-upon position in the genome.In the present study, DNA barcoding was used as a technology to differentiate deer and goat species from the skin samples.The samples were collected from different regions of the skin, viz.ear pinna, dorsal abdomen, muzzle and interdigital space of foerelimb of deer brought for post mortem at College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, from Thrissur zoo and forest department and of goat freshly slaughtered in Meat Technology Unit, Mannuthy.Samples were chopped and preserved in ethanol and processed.The mitochondrial sequence of Cytochrome C Oxidase subunit (COI) was deliberated as a barcode marker suited best for species identification of the animals and based on this the samples were identified as Cervus unicolor, Rusa timorensis and Capra hircus.The results recommended that unidentified specimens from wild animals can be recognized competently using DNA sequencebased analysis.

Estimation of hydroxyproline and collagen in skin of turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) was done using skin samples procured from 12 birds each of either sex of four to six months of age. The samples were stored at -200 C and the hydroxyproline content of moisture-free and fat-free samples of the skin was estimated. From the values arrived at, the collagen content was calculated on fresh matter basis. Average content of hydroxyproline was 5.20 and 5.30 per cent in male and female turkeys respectively. Collagen content was found to be as 8.16 per cent in male and 8.14 per cent in female turkeys. On statistical analysis, significant difference was not detected in the mean percentage of hydroxyproline and collagen content between sexes. Hence, the skin of turkey with its high content of collagen can be recommended as a source for collagen production in the avian industry. Moreover, with a contribution of 8.43 to 9.65 per cent to the total carcass weight, the potentials of skin of turkey could be effectively harnessed for further processed products.

The present study was conducted on the pelvic limb bones of a five year old male umbrella cockatoo. The femur was light in weight and presented a straight shaft, two extremities and four surfaces. The proximal extremity had a head with distinct fovea capitis, neck and indistinct trochanter major, while the distal extremity had a trochlea, two condyles and a wide intercondyloid groove. Patella was a small pea-sized sesamoid bone. The tibiotarsus was the largest of the leg bones and was one third longer than femur. It presented a long shaft with distinct fibular crest and two extremities. Both extremities showed medial and lateral condyles. From proximal extremity, the straight cnemial crest extended ventrally. The condyles of distal extremity were separated by intercondyloid fossa and continued caudally to wide grooved trochlea. Instead of extensor canal in other birds, a deep groove was observed. The fibula was with small head and rudimentary shaft and terminated near the middle of the shaft of tibiotarsus. The tarsometatarsus was extremely short. Its shaft presented convex dorsal surface whereas the plantar surface was concave without ridges. The distal extremity presented three articular trochleae. Between the trochlea for third and fourth digits, a bony canal was noticed. The spur core seen in cockerel was not observed in the present study. Four digits from one to four showed zygodactyl type of arrangement and contained two, three, four and five phalanges, respectively. Distal phalanx in each digit was a claw. The light femur and highly reduced fibula in umbrella cockatoo showed adaptations for flight whereas the positioning of the digits showed adaptation for climbing and grasping

In mammals, the spinal cord forms a long, roughly cylindrical structure with cervical and lumbar enlargements. It is anchored in the vertebral canal, enclosed by meninges. The cord is protected by the epidural fat and terminates as the conus medullaris, which varied in level at different stages of gestation. The weight and length of the cord have a significant correlation in between them and with age, body weight, CRL, and vertebral column length and other body parameters. All cord segments did not correspond to the corresponding vertebrae. Initially, the spinal cord extended the entire length of the vertebral canal. Later it loose its correspondence with vertebral segments as gestation proceeds.

Histology, histochemistry and ultrastructure of epidermis was studied in deer, goat and sheep. The skin consisted of two layers, viz. a superficial epidermis and the deeper dermis. Sweat and sebaceous glands, as well as hair follicles, were epidermal structures located in the dermis and subcutis. Epidermis was composed of stratified squamous keratinized epithelium. Among all the 27 regions studied in the three species, muzzle region had the thickest epidermis. Among the five layers of the epidermis, stratum basalis, stratum spinosum and stratum corneum were always present and formed continuous layers throughout the body surface. Stratum granulosum consisting of one to three layers of cells was a continuous layer in most of the regions. A definite stratum lucidum was seen only in the muzzle, dorsal nasal and ventral abdominal areas. PAS and Alcian blue positive areas were detected in stratum spinosum and stratum granulosum. The latter exhibited positive reaction as green fluorescence to fluorescein iso-thiocyanate conjugated lectin from Ulex europaeus . Intensity of reaction was more in sheep among the three species studied. Epidermis exhibited diffused positive reaction for oil red o. The epidermis showed a positive alkaline phosphatase reaction exept stratum corneum. A diffused positive reaction to acid phosphatase was noticed in epidermis. Melanocytes and keratin pigments in the different layers of skin exhibited a positive reaction in immunohistochemistry due to antigen-presenting immune cells i e. Langerhans cells. Transmission electron microscopy revealed cells in epidermis with keratohyaline granules.

Hair distribution patterns in the deer, goat and sheep were studied using skin samples collected from spotted deer brought for post mortem at College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, from the Thrissur zoo and forest department and from goats and sheep freshly slaughtered at the Meat Technology Unit, Mannuthy. Samples of 1cm3 were collected from 27 regions of skin, viz. muzzle, infraorbital, horn glands, dorsal face, lateral face, ventral face, ear pinna, dorsal neck, lateral neck, ventral neck, dorsal abdomen, lateral abdomen, ventral abdomen, dorsal forelimb, palmar, dorsal hindlimb, plantar, interdigital part of fore limb, interdigital part of hind limb, forelimb foot pad, hindlimb foot pad, inguinal, preputial scrotal regions of male dorsal thorax, perineum and dorsal nasal regions. The hair arrangement in the three species was simple, but arranged in groups. Mostly two to three hairs formed a group and they emerged out very closely but not from a single orifice unlike in the case of compound hairs. The muzzle region lacked hair on the rostral aspect and sparse wool hairs were found on the dorsal surface. Dorsal nasal and carpal regions consisted of dense population of short, stout hairs. Maximum hair density per microscope field under low power was noticed in the lateral aspect of neck, dorsal abdomen, palmar, interdigital aspect of hind limb, lateral abdomen and dorsal aspect of hind limb in deer. Hair was absent in the muzzle followed by dorsal face region in all three species in the present study. Maximum hair density per microscope field under low power was noticed on the dorsal aspect of fore limb, palmar aspect, pinna of ear, dorsal abdomen and interdigital space of hind limb in goat with minimum hair distribution on the ventral abdomen followed by lateral face region. Maximum hair density per microscope field under low power was noticed on the dorsal aspect of neck, interdigital space of fore limb, lateral aspect of neck and infraorbital in sheep with minimum hair distribution on the ventral abdomen, dorsal face and lateral face. In general, density of hair distribution was more in the deer than the goat and sheep

Studies were conducted on 2972 failed to hatch chicken eggs with embryonic deaths to detect the various abnormalities occurring during their development. The study included descriptive examination and comparison of unhatched eggs of chicken. Objective of the experiment was to study the occurrence of abnormalities of embryos at various stages of incubation in chicks by gross examination. Of the total eggs collected, a major contribution towards lesser hatchability was accounted by infertile eggs, followed by mortality during early period, late stage and then mid-stage mortality. A significant positive correlation existed between weight, length and width of eggs. Anomalies encountered in the present study were categorized as developmental failure, developmental arrest, developmental excess including twinning and atypical differentiation with skeletal abnormalities.

The cytoarchitecture of the parasympathetic oculomotor nucleus in the buffalo has been described by materials collected from eight buffalos. Serial and semi serial sections of brain stem were used for the study. The parasympathetic oculomotor nucleus was composed primarily of small and medium sized fusiform cells. The neurons had prominent nucleus with central or eccentric nucleolus and a small amount of cytoplasm. Coarse clumps of deeply stained Nissl substance was distributed in the scarce cytoplasm. The mean neuron population in the nucleus was 18,834. In the nucleus the mean diameter of medium sized neurons was 29.87 ± 0.41 μm and that of small sized neurons was 23.1 ± 0.29 μm.

The weight of internal organs relative to the body weight were studied in broiler and layer chicken of the same age group. The average weights of heart, liver, pancreas and spleen were 8.84±0.30, 35.05±7.15, 4.35±0.74 and 2.26±1.34 grams respectively and these formed 0.42 ±0.04, 1.65±0.22, 0.21±0.04 and 0.105±0.054 per cent of body weight in broiler birds. In layer birds the average weights of heart, liver, pancreas and spleen were 1.52±0.05,8.09±1.05, 1.24±0.13 and 0.451±0.080 grams respectively and these formed 0.60 ±0.06, 8.09±1.05, 0.49±0.04 and 0.177±0.030 percent of body weight . There was a significant difference in per cent organ weights among broilers and layers indicating that the mean percent organ weight of layer chicken is more than that of broiler chicken of the same age group.

Gross anatomical features of the sternum in crow (Corvus splendens) was studied using specimens collected from birds brought for post-mortem at the Department of Pathology in the College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy. The sternum was extensive and extremely thin with a total length of 4.63 ± 0.11 cm and width 2.65 ± 0.11 cm. The large ventrally directed keel or carina was triangular in shape, wide cranially (1.29 ± 0.08 cm) and narrow and tapering caudally for attachment of flight muscles. The manubrial spine was of moderate size, projecting from the rostral most border of sternum and bifid cranially. The cranial border of the body of the sternum showed well developed, elongated transversely directed facets for articulation with the distal extremity of coracoid bones. Lateral borders of the body presented five costal facets on either side for articulation with the sternal ribs. The body of sternum was roughly rectangular in shape and showed a pair of short craniolateral and long caudolateral processes. The caudal border was straight and presented on either side a 'U' shaped notch between the caudolateral process and lateral border of body. The dorsal surface was concave from sides to midline and there were several pneumatic foramina arranged linearly on the midline for communication with airsacs. The anatomical peculiarities of sternum in the crow may be correlated with its flight adaptations and scavenging behaviour of the species.

Morphometric study on the hoof of buffalo was undertaken in the present work. The toe length, toe height, toe angle, sole length, sole width, heel bulb length, heel bulb height and heel bulb width of lateral and medial claws of both forelimbs and hind limbs were recorded separately. There was no statistically significant correlation between the body weight and the different morphometric measurements of hooves. The average toe length of fore and hind limbs were 8.16±0.19 cm and 7.795±0.253 cm respectively. The average toe height of fore and hind limbs were 5.535±0.472 cm and 5.20±0.48 cm. Maximum sole length was recorded in the left lateral claw of hindlimb (13.45±0.833 cm) and minimum in the right lateral of forelimb (12.5±0.83 cm). Maximum sole width was recorded in the right medial claw of forelimb (6.45±0.46) and minimum in the right medial claw of hindlimb (4.75±0.592). There existed a significant difference in the mean toe length, toe height, sole length, sole width, heel bulb length, heel bulb height and heel bulb width of forelimb and hindlimb and showed greater values for forelimb