Although land-use change in post-socialist countries has been widely studied, most research has focused on the post-1990 transition period, emphasizing socio-economic and institutional drivers. In contrast, limited attention has been given to land-use dynamics during the Soviet period and their lasting impacts on landscape structure and soil properties. This gap is particularly relevant for understanding long-term ecological processes in areas affected by early agricultural abandonment. This study aims to analyse the political, environmental, and spatial drivers of land-use change from 1954 to 2021 in a marginal rural area and to assess how these changes have influenced soil properties under different land-use scenarios. Over the past 67 years, substantial land-use changes in marginal regions have been driven primarily by agricultural extensification, land abandonment, and subsequent natural afforestation, processes shaped by both natural factors and targeted land management policies. The development of forest is influenced by environmental and spatial factors, particularly land quality and proximity to forest edge. In our study, forested areas were characterized by lower soil pH and reduced levels of organic carbon, nitrogen, and exchangeable cations compared to grasslands, reflecting both inherent soil properties and the legacy of past land use. These findings underscore that forest encroachment predominantly occurs on less fertile soils, highlighting the need for land management and policy approaches that integrate historical context, soil properties, and the conflicting priorities of conservation and afforestation to ensure sustainable land use and biodiversity protection.

This study investigates the complex and dynamic soil formation processes on the Baltic Sea coast, where the parent material consists of sandy sediments derived from the Baltic Ice Lake. It focuses on morphological and physicochemical transformations driven by recurrent disturbances, including forest fires, wind erosion, potential slash-and-burn agriculture, marine aerosol deposition, and the aeolian transport of beach sand into the forest ecosystem. Pedogenesis initially progressed through podzolization but was subsequently replaced by alkalinization and depodzolization, as indicated by an increase in soil pH and a relatively low Fed/Fet ratio in the B horizon. This suggested a relatively short podzolization phase, which was further reinforced by the neutralisation of soil acidity and the low organic matter content in the upper horizons. Eolian activity caused the erosion, transport and subsequent burial of the initial soil, preserving morphological characteristics typical of a podzol. However, the chemical properties of the B horizon did not fulfil the criteria for a spodic horizon. Mean pH values in the upper horizons were 7.3 (H2O) and 6.0 (BaCl2), whereas pH in the B horizon consistently exceeded 5.9. Elevated concentrations of Ca, Mg and K in the upper soil horizons, along with higher pH, indicated a strong marine aerosol influence. According to WRB 2022, the soils are classified as Eutric Brunic Aeolic Arenosols (Amphiclaric, Novic, Ochric) or Eutric Brunic Aeolic Arenosols (Epiclaric, Novic, Ochric). These findings enhance our understanding of coastal soil pedogenesis, clarify the impact of various disturbances in soil development and highlight the classification challenges posed by coastal aeolian environment.

Private forests play an important role in biodiversity conservation. Countries utilize various mechanisms for integrating private forests into biodiversity conservation strategies. While voluntary private forest conservation of biodiversity dominates in Nordic Europe countries, in Latvia the involuntary approach remains the main biodiversity conservation path. We aimed to explore the attitude of Latvian forest owners towards existing forest biodiversity conservation mechanisms, and preferences regarding potential motivating mechanisms. Our survey (analysis of 599 responses) was targeted on forest owners who had experienced biodiversity conservation related restrictions under involuntary conservation and who owned forest properties with significant biodiversity values. Our results suggested that owners of small forest properties under 5 ha, who are less financially dependent on forestry income and lack forestry education, as well as female forest owners, are more positive towards biodiversity conservation measures. Our results showed that most forest owners were not ready to accept substantial forestry restrictions. However, they would be ready to accept minor forestry restrictions such as no felling during bird breeding season and obligation of retention of a greater number of ecologically important trees and deadwood. Most forest owners considered the existing compensation system (annual payments) to be unfair. However, our results did not reveal larger acceptance for a voluntary conservation approach, as opposed to the existing system. Provision of information regarding biodiversity conservation in forest management remains a crucial task, however it primarily should be addressed through the forestry education system and forestry institution information channels.

The effect of secondary succession of abandoned agricultural lands on soil properties and soil microbial community is still poorly understood due to a complexity of interacting environmental factors. A significant area of agricultural lands has become abandoned in the central part of Latvia due to non-ideal agrotechnical conditions caused by soil and topography, resulting in natural colonization of trees. The aim of the study was to compare physicochemical parameters and microbial activity in soil adjacent to Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H.Karst.) trunks under the crown and on grassland outside the tree canopy, 15 years after the tree colonization. The redundancy analysis showed that bulk density, total nitrogen, total carbon, and exchangeable cations (Mg2+, K+, Ca2+, Mn2+) were positively related to substrate-induced respiration, fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis, and urease activity in sandy soil. However, positive correlations were found between urease activity and bulk density, exchangeable cations (Al3+, Fe2+, Mn2+) in loamy sand soil, while negative correlations were observed with pHBaCl2, total carbon, total nitrogen, CECe, bulk density, and exchangeable cations (K+, Ca2+). Significant differences were observed among the sampling sites (trunk and grassland), soil types (sandy Podzols and loamy sand Stagnosols), and depths (0–10 cm and 11–20 cm). Specifically, higher levels of potential ammonium oxidation and dehydrogenase activity, as well as concentrations of exchangeable cations (K+, Mn2+), were observed near the spruce trunk in sandy soil. In contrast, fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis activity, CECe, and exchangeable cations (Mg2+, Ca2+) showed higher levels in loamy sand soil. The observed spatial differences showed that secondary succession of agricultural lands with spruce affects physicochemical properties of soil and microbial activity, even in a relatively short period of time. Thus, we assume that these changes will be even more pronounced in the future, as the field transforms from grassland to forest.

In conditions of complex glacial topography, large-scale soil mapping (1:10 000) according to the World reference base for soil resources (WRB) 2022 classification faces significant challenges. High diversity of reference soil groups (RSG) and qualifiers can be found in a small area, and this diversity is not related to the influence of a single but rather to a set of soil-forming factors. As a part of the study, the classification of soils on postglacial landscape was conducted using the WRB 2022 classification system. The analysis was focused on examining relationships between RSG and qualifiers, and also with type of geological deposits, location on the terrain, human activities (drainage of agricultural land, soil tillage and erosion). Survey showed that, in a relatively small area, soil cover consisted of WRB RSG such as Luvisols, Retisols, Regosols, Stagnosols, Gleysols Phaeozems, Planosols, Podzols, Histosols and Anthrosols, with the respective sets of qualifiers. Soils corresponding to the Anthrosol RSG were formed during the construction of a drainage system by burying the former soil with deeper material and later by translocation of colluvium by soil erosion. In the complex glacial topography, the distribution of RSG and their qualifiers is specific, which poses a number of challenges for soil mapping. The study confirmed the possibility of WRB classification for large-scale mapping of agricultural soils on postglacial landscape at the RSG level. The use of qualifiers for definition of mapping units in similar conditions of complex terrain and geological deposits (when mapping on a scale of 1:10 000) is possible only by increasing sampling density.

During the last few decades significant amount of agricultural land in Latvia have been abandoned and overgrown, due to various factors. It is considered that abandonment is strongly influenced by socioeconomic and political factors, however, soil quality should be taken into consideration, as it plays a very important role in the development of vegetation. The aim of the research is to clarify spatial relationship of soil properties with different land use change scenarios.The study was conducted in the polygon (310 ha) characterized by slightly undulated topography in the southeast part of Latvia, where over the last 60 years, abandonment of agricultural land and overgrowth with forest has been observed.For the spatial assessment of land use change, aerial photo materials between 1954 and 2014 were digitized, where three types of land use were determined: arable land, grassland and forest. From 1954 till 2014 land use in the study area has changed significantly, therefore several scenarios were distinguished: a) arable land → forest; b) grassland → forest; c) arable land → grassland; d) grassland → grassland. In the study area 36 soil profiles were established, samples were collected and physical and chemical analyses (soil texture (sand, silt, clay (%), pHKCl, total carbon (%), total nitrogen (%), exchangeable cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Fe3+, Al3+) (cmol(+) kg-1)) according to standard methods were conducted in the laboratory. To estimate statistically significant (p<0.05) differences between land use scenarios and soil properties was used One-Way ANOVA.The study results shows that the area covered by forest increased from 11% to 62%, between 1954 and 2014, but arable land decreased from 33% to 0,1% and grassland area decreased by 20%. In 2014 agricultural lands are mainly overgrown with Alnus incana (48.6%), Salix caprea (19%) and Betula pendula (14%), as well with Populus tremula and Picea abies. Statistical analyses showed significant differences of soil textural classes: content of sand and silt fraction, pHKCl value, and exchangeable cations (Ca2+, Al3+) between former arable land that changed to forest and arable land that changed to grassland. Arable land overgrows faster in areas of poorer soil and lighter soil textural classes, in contrast longer agricultural activity was found in areas, characterized by relatively heavier soil textural classes. Soil was more acidic and concentration of Al3+ was significantly higher in areas that have been overgrown by trees. Statistical analysis revealed that soil texture, acidity and nutrient availability significantly influence further development of land, either area will be transformed to forest or kept as grassland. Although, overgrowth is considered as reasonable land use option of abandoned agricultural lands, preliminary results showed that investigated marginal lands are suitable for farming. Further study will be conducted in a wider region for deeper understanding of mechanisms responsible for land use changes.

In Europe, economic restructuring and technological progress has been aimed at reducing pollution emissions at local, regional and global scales, which has been monitored using standard methods. Among the many methods used to determine deposition of heavy metals, in Europe moss has been used to monitor atmospheric pollution for more than 30 years on a 5-year cycle. This simple method can be used to assess improvement to the environment after massive economic change. Using PCA analysis, this study examines the long-term trends of heavy metal concentrations (Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, V, Zn) in Latvia. There has been a decline in heavy metal concentrations in Latvia related to the closure of large industries after the collapse of the Soviet Union and due to change in fossil fuels in the energy sector from petroleum to natural gas, but past effect from some sources is still evident. Increased quality of automobile fuel led to a decrease of lead concentration, and conversion of fuel source in the energy sector from oil to natural gas caused a decline of V and Ni concentration.

&lt;p&gt;Agricultural practice on peat soils represents an explicit tradeoff between carbon sequestration and farmland productivity, i.e., peat soils are a pool of carbon and a fragile component of biodiversity but also highly productive farmland. Agricultural land use and land-use change can have a significant impact on peat soil distribution and properties.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;This study aims to clarify the distribution of various agricultural land uses in peat soils and to analyse potential drivers of the distribution patterns. The presented research is based on the case studies of agricultural activities in peatlands in substantial landscape locations &amp;#8211; a) lowland polder in the ancient coastal lagoon; b) drained inland wetland (inland polder); c) marginal upland landscape; d) undulated plains in a mosaic landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Our study shows that peatland distribution has reasonably impacted agricultural land use and its intensity, however in different landscapes, it reveals differently. In coastal lowland polders, due to intense agricultural use, peat soils have significant mineralization levels; in inland polders, the mineralisation is more decelerated; in upland and mosaic landscapes the peat soils have faced farmland abandonment. Mineralization of peat depends on plowing, which promotes it, as well as impacts the thickness of the peat layer. If the peat layer is thinner, the faster the loss of organic matter occurs. Peat soils determine the current use of the land. In the depressions of the undulated topography there are land abandonment and overgrowing by bushes, while polder soils are intensively used by plowing. The presented results provide additional criteria for decision support in agricultural land-use planning, i.e., the implication of agri-environmental schemes in agricultural lands on peat soils.&lt;/p&gt;

Land-use change in agriculturally marginal mosaic-type landscapes involves economic, environmental, and social aspects and can lead to social and economic problems in rural areas. This study focuses on the western part of Vidzeme Uplands, Latvia, which has been heavily impacted by rural depopulation and agricultural land abandonment. The research explores the value of low-intensity agroecosystems in agriculturally marginal landscapes using an ecosystem service approach. Three scenarios were developed: a 'business as usual' scenario, a 'no subsidies' scenario, and a 'payments for ecosystem services' scenario. The 'business as usual' scenario shows a pattern of subtle intensification, while the 'no subsidies' scenario predicts a significant loss of low-intensity agroecosystems and their services. The 'payments for ecosystem services' scenario estimates the safeguarding of essential regulatory ecosystem services, ensuring the potential supply of provisioning services, and maintaining the fragile structure of the marginal mosaic-type landscape.

Forest area increase has been characteristic to the Eastern Baltic region since the early twentieth century. The emergence of new forest areas in significant amounts changes the visual and ecological character of landscapes and affects forest management decisions. The aim of this study was to investigate how emerging spatial patterns and stand characteristics of new forest areas impact forests in Latvia. Four study areas were selected in Latvia - Skrunda, Bauska, Skujene and Kaunata to analyze new and stable forest areas. Inside these four areas, 27,205 forest compartments were analyzed from new forests and 93,902 compartments in stable forests for reference. New and stable forest areas were mapped for the period of 1967-2017. Latvian State Forest register database provided compartment-level characteristics for new and stable forests. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze differences in tree species composition, ownership structure and management restrictions; and GIS methods - to assess compartment accessibility by roads. Spatial pattern metrics were calculated using Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis in Guidos Toolbox 2.6. Results show that the majority of new forest areas have emerged from spontaneous afforestation, this was especially pronounced in Kaunata area (only 5% of new forest areas were planted). Scots pine, Norway spruce and two birch species comprised the majority in stable forest areas compared to new forest areas, where the proportions of dominant tree species were more evenly distributed. Spatial pattern analysis showed that the emergence of new forest areas has contributed to the homogenization of forest pattern with increasing Core area, reducing Edge and Islet (isolated patch) proportion. 93-99% of new forest areas identified in this study were not state-owned. Compartment accessibility was very good for all four study areas in Latvia, with 60-80% of stands being located closer than 500 m from roads. This study demonstrated that management of such small, spatially scattered and young forest compartments can be problematic. Since the majority or Latvia's private forest owners' holdings are smaller than 50 ha, the lack of resources and education as well physical factors impede successful involvement of these numerous small owners in sustainable management efforts.

Our study investigated soil morphology, genesis, and properties in soil profiles with different land-use history. Charcoal radiocarbon dating and digitized topographical, military and orthophoto maps from different years were used to identify land-use history. For identified land-use trajectories, soils were described, soil samples were collected, and physical and chemical analyses were performed. The history of land use, farming practices and the vegetation composition of the forest ecosystem affected soil genesis and the physical and chemical properties of soil. The abandonment and afforestation coniferous forest stands land contributed to the decrease of soil base saturation in the topsoil and soil acidification. Non-intensive agricultural practice using earthmanure and the overgrew of agricultural lands with deciduous trees increased the content of carbon and nitrogen and slowed down soil acidification.

In many countries, biodiversity conservation strategies are aimed not only for state land, but also private land. Participation of landowners in conservation programmes can be viewed as a continuum from voluntary by the landowner to force by the existing legislation. The biodiversity conservation system of Latvia represents a case where in certain situations (such as establishment of micro-reserves) strict forest management restrictions can be implemented without acceptance of landowners. This causes conflicts with forest owners, which can negatively affect the success of reaching biodiversity conservation goals. Therefore, we aimed to explore factors driving private forest owner's attitude towards biodiversity conservation in their land. Mixed-mode survey was utilized for gathering information from 386 private forest owners. Ordinal logistic regression (OLS) models were used to analyze relationships between predictor and response variables. Our results suggested that financial dependence on income from forest harvest was the main factor causing negative attitude of landowners towards biodiversity conservation measures for private land of Latvia. This factor was significantly correlated with a forestry background (education, occupation and size of forest land). However, landowner education and general conservation values also influenced landowner willingness to accept conservation measures on private forest land. We highlighted a great potential for voluntary biodiversity conservation mechanisms in Latvia, which could complement existing (regulatory approach based) biodiversity conservation instruments.

The soil science community needs to communicate about soils and the use of soil information to various audiences, especially to the general public and public authorities. In this global review article, we synthesis information pertaining to museums solely dedicated to soils or which contain a permanent exhibition on soils. We identified 38 soil museums specifically dedicated to soils, 34 permanent soil exhibitions, and 32 collections about soils that are accessible by appointment. We evaluate the growth of the number of museums since the early 1900s, their geographical distribution, their contents, and their attendance. The number of museums has been continuously growing since the early 1900s. A noticeable increase was observed from 2015 to 2019. Europe (in a geographical sense), Eastern and South-East Asia have the highest concentration of soil museums and permanent exhibitions related to soils. Most of the museums' attendance ranged from 1000 to 10,000 visitors per year. Russia has the largest number of soil monoliths exhibited across the world's museums, whereas the ISRIC-World Soil Museum has the richest and the most diverse collection of soil monoliths. Museums, collections, and exhibitions of soil play an important role in educating the population about this finite natural resource that maintains life on the planet, and for this reason, they must be increasingly supported, extended, and protected.

Over the last decades, more attention has been paid to carbon accumulation in soil, more recently, to soil humus forms, as they indicate environmental conditions and state of soil organic matter. There is insufficient information on the impact of soil and forest type on the chemical properties of soil, soil organic matter and humus form. Knowledge about the chemical properties of humus is crucial for modelling C and N accumulation and storage in forest soils. On this account, the aim of this study was to characterize soil humus forms, humus chemical properties and C stock and to determine the spatial distribution correlations between soil humus forms in forests formed on dry mineral soils. We studied humus forms in 44 sampling sites located in different types of forests. Soil samples were collected from genetic O and A (EA) horizons and analysed for organic carbon (CORG) and total nitrogen (NTOT) content and NaOH extractable organic matter. Generalized linear model analysis showed that the distribution of the psammomor and mor humus forms is related to oligotrophic forest types, while glaciogenic and glaciolimnic sediments constitute the main precondition for the occurrence of the mull humus form. The psammomor and mor humus forms have the lowest CORG stock in the topsoil, and more than 75% of the total CORG is accumulated in the O horizon. The mull humus form soils have the highest CORG stock in the mineral topsoil, accumulating 80% of the total topsoil CORG stock. The Ah horizons of the mull humus soils also have a significantly lower CHS-to-CORG ratio.

After 1991, major events, such as the collapse of socialism and the transition to market economies, caused land use change across the former USSR and affected forests in particular. However, major land use changes may have occurred already during Soviet rule, but those are largely unknown and difficult to map for large areas because 30-m Landsat data is not available prior to the 1980s. Our goal was to analyze the rates and determinants of forest cover change from 1967 to 2015 along the Latvian-Russian border, and to develop an object-based image analysis approach to compare forest cover based on declassified Corona spy satellite images from 1967 with that derived from Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8 OLI images from 1989/1990 and 2014/2015. We applied Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry to orthorectify and mosaic the scanned Corona images, and extracted forest cover from Corona and Landsat mosaics using object-based image analysis in eCognition and expert classification. In a sensitivity analysis, we tested how the scale parameters for the segmentation affected the accuracy of the change maps. We analyzed forest cover and forest patterns for our full study area of 22,209 km(2), and applied propensity score matching approach to identify three Latvian-Russian pairs of 15 x 15 km cells, which we compared. We attained overall classification accuracies of 92% (Latvia) and 93% (Russia) for the forest/non-forest change maps of 1967-1989, and 91% (Latvia) and 93% (Russia) for 1989-2015, and our results were robust in regards to the segmentation scale parameter. Sample-based forest cover gain from 1967 to 1989 differed notably between the two countries (18.5% in Latvia and 23.6% in Russia), but was generally much higher prior to 1989 than from 1989 to 2015 (8.7% in Latvia and 9.7% in Russia). Furthermore, we found rapid de-fragmentation of forest cover, where forest core area increased, and proportions of isolated patches and forest corridors decreased, and this was particularly pronounced in Russia. Our findings highlight the need to study Soviet-time land cover and land use change, because rural population declines and major policy decisions such as the collectivization of agricultural production, merging of farmlands and agricultural mechanization led already during Soviet rule to widespread abandonment and afforestation of remote farmlands. After 1991, government subsidies for farming declined rapidly in both countries, but in Latvia, new financial aid from the EU became available after 2001. In contrast, remoteness, lower population density, and less of a legacy of intensive cultivation resulted in higher rates of forest gain in Russia. Including Corona imagery in our object-based image analysis workflow allowed us to examine half a century of forest cover changes, and that resulted in surprising findings, most notably that forest area gains on abandoned farm fields were already widespread during the Soviet era and not just a post-socialist land use change trend as had been previously reported.

This article analyses the factors causing changes in land use in Kurzeme (Courland), the Western part of Latvia, in the 20 and 21 centuries with the aim of prognosticating of landscape development. The territory chosen for investigation is the parish of Gudenieki situated on the Western slope of the Western Kursa Uplands. Topographical maps, aerial photos, maps of land use and statistic data have been used to analyse the dynamics of landscape, structuring and factors influencing them. GIS methods have been used for the analysis of data in land use changes. The research shows that changes in landscape structure are not the same in all regions of Latvia. They depend not only on the natural base, but also on human factors. Under the influence of current social, economic and political processes, Latvia may experience increased marginalization of these uplands, which in turn will favour the formation of a more homogeneous landscape.

The area covered by low-input agroecosystems (e.g. semi-natural and permanent grasslands) in Europe has considerably decreased throughout the last century. To support more sustainable management practices and to promote biodiversity and ecosystem service values of such agroecosystems, a decision support tool was developed. The tool aims to enhance the implementation of ecosystem services and address the challenge of their integration into spatial planning. The Viva Grass tool aims to enhance the maintenance of ecosystem services delivered by low-input agroecosystems. It does so by providing spatially-explicit decision support for land-use planning and sustainable management of agroecosystems. The Viva Grass tool is a multi-criteria decision analysis tool for integrated planning. It is designed for farmers, spatial planners and policy-makers to support decisions for management of agroecosystems. The tool has been tested to assess spatial planning in eight case studies across the Baltic States.

Understanding forest regeneration in relation to land-use legacies is an important goal of research on global environmental changes and future ecosystem patterns. Recent findings on spruce regeneration on abandoned agricultural land showed it to be linked to land-use legacies involving increased soil fertility by fertilization. We argue that indirect drivers like land-use changes from arable land to grassland, which affect soil fertility and vegetation density, could also be involved. We selected a study area where changes in land-use involved gradual abandonment of agricultural intervention and created substantial heterogeneity in forest stand age and species composition. Over a 60-year period, the tree colonization pattern changed from deciduous tree species in 1950–1970 to Norway spruce in the later period. Generalized linear logistic regression models were generated to explain the presence of deciduous tree and spruce colonization in relation to soil and land-use factors. The importance of plant community composition on establishment of tree species was studied by Cluster analysis and unconstrained ordination. Deciduous forest development was negatively related to past agricultural use as arable land and positively related to extensively used grasslands (meadows and pastures) and no soil factors entered the explanatory model. Ecological amplitude of deciduous tree species and differing patterns of agricultural land management at landscape and farm scales are discussed as possible explanations. Spruce regeneration was significantly explained by soil moisture and agricultural use as arable land followed by conversion to grassland. We conclude that spruce regeneration is a phenomenon characteristic not only for previously fertilized agricultural land but also for marginal agricultural land if the management ensures development of dense herbaceous layer.

Background: Natural afforestation of former agricultural lands with alder species is common in Europe. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation by actinomycetes associated with alder species has been widely used for improvement of soil properties of abandoned agricultural lands, but relatively little is known of the interactions of these processes with soil type and chemical composition. We conducted a space-for time study with soil sampling under and outside grey alder tree canopies on two different soil groups to explore effects of colonisation of former agricultural lands by alder on soil properties.Results: The results were analysed using analysis of variance. During the first 25 years after afforestation of former agricultural lands there was a significant increase in content of Ctot, Ntot, K+, Fe3+, Mn2+and available P in the topsoil（0–10 cm and 11–20 cm） of Dystric Arenosols soils, which are deficient in organic matter. Such trends were not evident in organic matter rich Endostagnic Umbrisols soils, in which exchangeable K+concentration decreased and exchangeable Fe3+and Al3+concentration increased.Conclusions: The results show that the effects of grey alder on soil chemical properties depend on initial soil properties. The invasion of agricultural land by grey alder leads to spatial variability of soil chemical properties creating a mosaic pattern.

The collectivisation of agriculture and the development and application of land improvement “melioration” programmes and technologies, as well as the construction of kolkhoz centres during the Soviet era in Latvia was extensive and has a legacy on the post-Soviet landscape and agricultural economy. A study of a number of rural municipalities in different landscape types, through the comparison of maps from the early 20th century with those from around 2000, and one example with maps from the 1960s and 1990s, together with field work, revealed the degree of change that had taken place. In particular, there was a significant increase in forest – despite the kolkhoz system being targeted at increasing agricultural outputs, a reduction in the number of farmsteads – in some places this was a result of land battles in the Second World war – and a concentration of residences in villages and widespread drainage of marshes, wetlands and wetter forest. Village centres with concentrations of blocks of flats, storage sheds and industrial units were developed. After 1991 and the restitution of land to the original owners or their descendants, large numbers of kolkhoz agricultural buildings, old estate buildings and some residential blocks became redundant and abandoned. Some of the farmland was also abandoned. The sampled areas show different amounts of landscape change and all showed large numbers of ruined buildings scattered around the area. The question of what to do with these, many of which are robbed of anything useful, vandalised and possibly causing pollution remains open, even after 25 or more years.